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Henk Sebregts |
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China |
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The Far East in Words and Pictures |
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China's history goes a long way back in time. Many inhabitants consider their country the cradle of all civilization. They are prudent with foreigners, because they are not familiar with their age-old traditions. These date from the third millennium BC. In this period the first local kingdoms rose to power in the lowlands of central China. The kings controlled the agricultural settlements along the fertile banks of the Yellow River. They had a divine status and ruled the local peasantry who provided labour for the construction of city walls and other public works. Popular belief has it that the Xia was the first royal dynasty in China. The Xia ruled from the twenty first up to the sixteenth century BC. It is said that these rulers stimulated important discoveries such as the invention of Chinese writing. But these claims have never been confirmed by scientific research. The only thing archaeologists know for sure is that Chinese writing already existed during the Shang dynasty which ruled from the sixteenth up to the eleventh century BC. During the Zhou dynasty from the eleventh up to the third century BC several rulers expanded their territory to the north in the direction of Beijing and to the south up until the Yangtze River. To consolidate their sovereignty over such a large area they established a feudal system with vassal lords who governed in their name over separate principalities. According to the teachings of confucianism they had a mandate of heaven. The king gave them as their supreme lord a mandate to rule, but he could take it away from them if they appeared to be bad and corrupt. This concept included later a taoist version which implied that heaven sends natural disasters such as earthquakes on humanity to show its aversion of bad rulers. In this period the vassal lords built their own city walls to stop invading nomad tribes coming from the north. For the peasant population little things changed. The peasants were entirely dependent on the whims of their lords. They had no private possessions and were forced to cede a large cede part of their harvest to the lords. In case of war they had to fight as soldiers in the armies of their lords.
In the third century BC the Qin dynasty rose to power. The
founder of this dynasty forced several feudal states into one empire under his
direct command and called himself the first emperor of China. He created a network
of roads which linked the capital Xian in central China with the outer districts of
the empire up until Korea and Vietnam. Additionally, he ordered thousands of slaves
to construct a great wall to keep foreign peoples away from crossing the
imperial borders. City walls already in existence were extended and enhanced to
form one great wall. After his death the Han dynasty rose to power. It was the ruling dynasty for
over four hundred years. Until then the emperor had been the one and only ruler, but now
he delegated his power to a highly developed apparatus of civil servants. A
complicated examination system was developed which required knowledge of the
candidates concerning the teachings of confucianism. In this period the empire
expanded into central Asia by the subjection of vassal states in the region. Thanks to
trade caravans along the famous Silk Road the empire endured a long period of
prosperity.
In the centuries BC Buddhism came from India to China
along the Silk Road. Once in China it acquired in time many followers due to the vast
network of trade routes which the emperors had established. But for a long time the
influence of Buddhism was restricted to the southern areas of
the empire due to a strong separation between the north and
the south after the fall of the Han dynasty. The north was torn by wars and had
to deal with invasions of nomadic tribes at its borders. For
this reason many Chinese escaped to the south which had a period of
prosperity and strong economic growth. There they learned about Buddhism which
they considered an appropriate supplement for confucianism and taoism. At the end of the sixth century
peace returned to the empire during the rule of the Sui dynasty. In this
period the emperors reinforced the great wall to stop the invasions of the northern
nomadic tribes. They also started the construction of a large
canal between the Yellow River and the Yangtze River which linked the northern
and the southern areas of the empire.
The beginning of the seventh century saw a new peak in Chinese civilization during the Tang dynasty. The empire witnessed a golden age in arts which lasted up to the beginning of the tenth century.
In this period the imperial administration replaced the vassal lords by civil servants
who had to prove their knowledge of confucianism in an official examination. The
Tang continued the construction of canals which linked different parts of
the empire with each other. In this period Buddhism expanded rapidly in the
entire empire due to traveling merchants and pilgrims. Some emperors even
stimulated the expansion of Buddhism although it caused resentment among their civil servants. Thanks to the invention of
gun powder the imperial armies conquered various areas in the far west. After a
short period of war and economic decline came a period of peace and creativity
in the middle of the tenth century under the Song dynasty which lasted into
the thirteenth century. In this period an urban class of merchants and traders
enjoyed high economic and social status and succeeded in delivering many
candidates for the imperial administration by means of the official examinations. These
Mandarin or senior officials dominated public affairs.
At the beginning of the thirteenth century the empire faced
invasions from Mongols who were not deterred by the great wall. They reached to Beijing
and turned it into their capital. They established a new dynasty called the Yuan
and ruled a large empire of unprecedented size. The borders reached from the Ukraine in the
north and Persia in the west to Korea in the east and Vietnam
in the south. The new emperors however had little support from the Chinese
population because they granted the highest posts in the imperial administration
to Mongols. They lost power in the middle of the fourteenth century to a new
dynasty of Chinese origin. These Ming emperors considered China in every respect superior
to other nations and cultures. They restored and improved the great wall because
they feared new invasions. They received envoys of other states only if they were prepared to pay a
tribute
of precious presents. The tribute system excluded an equivalent relation and showed the arrogance of the imperial
court.
In the sixteenth century the first European ships landed at the southeastern
coast of China.The Portuguese were the firsts. Soon afterwards came the Spaniards
followed by the Dutch and the British. In the middle of the seventeenth century they had to deal
with a new imperial dynasty coming from Manchuria. This Qing dynasty ruled up
until the beginning of the twentieth century. The Qing kept foreigners as
far away as possible from their capital Beijing and forced them to remain in the
south western areas of their empire. However they could not prevent that the
British started a lucrative trade in opium in spite of
an imperial prohibition. The result was a number of opium wars in the middle of the nineteenth century.
The British won and forced the emperor to open up the country for further trade. Moreover
China had to pay large amounts of cash money as an indemnity for the wars. As a
result dissatisfaction grew among the Chinese population. Anger
reached its top in an insurrection called the Boxer Rebellion. The Boxers fought
foreign and western institutions. Due to fast intervention of western troops they lost this fight.
However the groups resisting foreign oppression gradually grew in numbers. This nationalist movement
turned against the weak Qing government for being not Chinese in origin.
At the beginning of the twentieth century a national
revolution started when rebelling groups were united in he Quomintang. Eventually the Qing
government recognized its defeat. On 10 October 1911 doctor Sun Yat Sen exclaimed
the Republic of China. He was one of the leaders during the revolution. The republicans chose the former head of the imperial
guard for president. At When he died some years later internal conflicts led to
a new fight for power. It involved warlords and their private armies as well. In
the middle of the twenties the nationalists broke their cooperation with the
newly formed communist movement. The ensuing civil war cost many lives.
During the second world war the fighting parties formed a united front against the Japanese
occupation. Soon afterwards the civil war started all over again. The Chinese
peasantry however turned over to the communists who disowned the landlords and
divided their land among the poor. The peasants supported the People's
Liberation Army who provided them with weapons and guerilla tactics. Eventually the
communists led by Mao Zedong defeated their adversaries.
On 1oktober 1949 Mao Zedong exclaimed the
People's Republic of China. In the fifties he started an economic recovery program called the Big Leap Forward.
It ordained the establishment of people's communes in the cities and in the countryside. These communes had to increase
the rate of economic growth over a period of five years with the
construction of steel ovens, water sheds and irrigation works. The program
turned out to be a failure. The quality of the new industrial products was poor and agricultural
productivity was low as the peasants in the countryside had no time for their work
in the fields. As a result Mao fell out of grace. But in the sixties he made a political comeback when he introduced a Cultural Revolution.
All people were considered to be equal and there should be no economic or social distinction
between them. All structures that remind of the past should be destroyed because
they were remnants of feudalism and capitalism. The
consequence was that many temples and monasteries were closed, plundered
or destroyed. Their intellectual leaders were prosecuted or assassinated. These events
led the nation to social disorder and economic crisis. After Mao's death in the seventies Deng Xiao Ping was the new political leader in China. He introduced economic liberalization and modernization. He allowed people in the countryside to sell their agricultural surpluses on the open market. He established special economic zones along the coast for free trade with other countries. As a result of these changes economic productivity grew fast. China has now an important part in the world trade market. Most of the benefits have gone to modern entrepreneurs in the large cities. Their wealth is in contrast with the poverty of many labourers either with or without employment. In the countryside poverty is even more apparent among farmers and rural workers. Many of hem leave for the city in the hope to find a better future. The government has to deal with this contrast between poor and rich. It also has to deal with the problem of corruption among many officials. Tempted by the wealth of modern entrepreneurs they grant them privileges which is not in line with the official state policy. The communist party leaders disallow any corruption and disdain anyone who has been found guilty.
By far the majority of the population are Han Chinese. Their culture is based upon three principles which were introduced in
the past during the early imperial regimes of the Qin and Han dynasties. These
three principles are confucianism, taoism and buddhism. The cultural revolution
in the sixties of twentieth century did not bring any change. Confucianism
teaches people to be civilized and to accept their natural place in society. A
good person shows obedience and respect his equals as well as his superiors. When he cultivates
these virtues he can even climb the social ladder. Taoism on the other hand
teaches that human interaction does not have any influence on the natural
order. Everyone must follow his own tao or nature. It consists of two
complements yin and yang which constitute one's identity. Everything in life depends on this natural
interaction. It is up to every individual to find some kind of feng shui
or natural
balance. Buddhism teaches that any individual must be free of material desires
by contemplation and abstinence. In the end one will reach a situation of eternal
peace.
In the northwestern and southwestern border areas of China there are ethnic groups which have their own social and cultural
values. They live in remote areas which have not yet been penetrated by Han
Chinese due to environmental circumstances. In the past these shaoshu
minzu or national minorities were not part of the imperial administration
which was concentrated in central China. Consequently they
do not have the same historical and cultural values of many Han Chinese. They do
not have any social interaction with them. The Han Chinese consider them
backward because of their distinct origin and their defiant beliefs. The Hui
in the northwest are descendants of Arab merchants and followers of Islam. The
Tibetans in the western mountains are adherents of lamaism. It is a kind
of mystical Buddhism. In the southwestern mountain areas live minorities such as the Bai and the Naxi.
They have a mixture of religions which combines the worship of their ancestors
with elements of buddhism and taoism. In the southwestern mountains live the Yao
with a mixture of religious beliefs. Many of them have converted to Christianity
although traditional beliefs still exist.
The national minorities not only have a distinct origin and different religious beliefs. In many cases they also wear
different clothes which express their ethnic origin and social status. Their
clothes show their marital status, their wealth and their competence in hand work.
Many women of the national minorities still weave and embroider their own clothes.
They colour them with a local dye. Embroidery is an essential part of their traditional dress and each
generation passes exclusive symbols to the next. These symbols refer to local myths and
legends. Young women still embroider baby clothes for their newly born children. Old
women embroider their own funeral clothes. In modern times however traditional
dress is subject to new techniques and cultural fashion. Nowadays many minority
people prefer industrial clothing with artificial colours and textiles. The national minorities have other
distinctive features as well. For example they have their own language. This
does not apply to the Hui. Many of them speak Mandarin Chinese. The language of
the Bai is a mixture of old Chinese and local dialect. The language of the Naxi however is different and related to Burmese-Tibetan. The Yao speak a
different language.
The attitude of the communist government towards the national minorities is ambiguous. Initially the communists supported the minorities in their
struggle for independence and freedom of oppression. But after the political
take-over their goal was to integrate all minorities within the People's Republic of China. During the
Great Leap Forward the communists dismantled their traditional economic
structures and replaced them by new cooperatives i.e. people's communes.
During the Cultural Revolution the national minorities had to give up their
cultural identity. Their traditions were considered as remnants of a feudal past.
They had to make way for social and economic progress. Nowadays the communist
government supports the national minorities and grants them new privileges. The
minority families in most rural areas are allowed to have more than one child.
This enables them to live their traditional way of life and work the fields
together as a family. Many of them however turn to modern agricultural
methods or leave for the city. Gradually their traditional communal ties fall apart.
Besides this modern education programs infect their lingual and cultural traditions.
Many minorities have discovered that cultural tourism is a profitable business. Tourism however leads to changes
in their community and their traditional social relations. A good example of this is
the Naxi community in southwestern
In the past there was a small settlement at the place of present day Beijing. The village was built in a swamp area near a river bank.
During the reign of the first emperor in China this village was destroyed. Two
thousand years ago the village was rebuilt. Much later the village became a centre of trade and
industry. In the middle of the thirteenth century the Mongols approached the
city from the north and took it after several attacks. The new emperor made it
the capital of his empire. For the first time in history Beijing was the political centre of China.
It remained the national capital in later periods despite a few short breaks in
times of trouble. At the beginning of the fifteenth century the village was officially called
Beijing or
northern capital. At the time the new emperors destroyed each reminiscence of the previous
rulers and ordered the construction of a new imperial palace with adjacent
buildings and temples. They also repaired the old city walls according to a new design. The
emperors of the last dynasty embellished the city with parks, pavilions and ponds. At the beginning of the twentieth
century the nationalists chose another place as the capital for the new Republic
of China. But in the middle of the last century the Communists made Beijing
again a national capital of the People's Republic of China.
Since the fifteenth century the city has been divided into three areas.
In the heart of he city is the Imperial Palace or Forbidden City where
the emperor used to live and other members of the imperial court. All around
this part of the city was an Imperial Wall. Access was prohibited without an
official permit. Nearby was the Inner City with the living quarters of the
imperial officials. At present nothing remains of this part of the city except
for one gate in the former Inner City Wall. At the edge was the Outer City
with the living quarters of the common people. Many old houses in the Outer City
have been demolished to make way for new apartments. However some hutongs or
living quarters still remain with small alleys and old houses which are one
storey high and built around an inner court. The apartments in these old houses
are small. Usually several families share one kitchen and toilet.
The living where they receive their guests serves as an extra bedroom. In recent
years many of these hutongs are demolished to make way for fast traffic
lanes and modern multi-storey apartments.
The Tiananmen Chang or Square of Celestial Peace was constructed in the middle of the seventeenth century as a part of the Inner City.
At the time the square was much smaller than it is today. The communist leaders have
enlarged the square for military parades and other ceremonies. They constructed several large communist
monuments in the middle of the square such as the Mausoleum
of Chairman Mao and the Hall of the People which serves as a parliament building. On the south side of the square
is an old gate from the beginning of the fifteenth century. In the past it was a part of the
wall of the Inner City. On the north side of the square is the wall of the
Forbidden City with the Gate of
Celestial Peace from the beginning of the fifteenth century.
This high gate is made of red brickstone and has a double roof of yellow
gold coloured tiles. It has five entrances and seven bridges over a moat. In
the past the entrance was open on holidays. Only the emperor was allowed
to use the bridge and entrance in the middle. Now a portrait of Chairman Mao hangs above the entrance.
The Forbidden City or Imperial Palace has approximately five hundred
buildings. It is the largest and best preserved cluster of ancient buildings
in China. No one was allowed to enter the Imperial Palace without special authorization. It was not possible to dig a tunnel for the whole complex was
built on several stone layers. All trees in the complex were cut down, so no
one could hide behind a tree. The emperor only left the palace for special occasions.
He ruled his empire from the palace and here he regulated all of his official
affairs. The buildings in the Imperial Palace have red walls and pillars. The beams
in the ceilings have blue and green colours and gilded dragons. The fabrics in
the interior frequently have a yellow colour. Only the emperor was allowed to
wear this colour. The tiles of the buildings have a yellow gold colour
as well. At each corner is a figure of a dragon or some other kind of animal
to repel the evil spirits. Near each building is a large bronze vessel with
water to extinguish the flames in case of a fire. In front of the entrance
there are images of sacred animals in bronze which symbolize a long life and immortality.
Behind the Gate of Celestial Peace is the Meridian Gate from the beginning of the fifteenth century. This
gate with five entrances is the main entrance of the Forbidden City or
Imperial Palace. High upon the Meridian Gate the emperor inspected his armies
on their victorious return from the battlefield. From the Meridian Gate the
emperor also observed the punishment of his officials when he was dissatisfied
about their imperial administration. Behind the Meridian Gate is a moat.
Next is the Gate of Supreme Harmony. Behind this gate is an enormous courtyard
with three large public halls on a marble terrace. These halls are at the heart
of the Forbidden City. Behind the halls there is another gate called the
Gate of Celestial Purity. This gate is the entrance for the private buildings
of the imperial family. Three main palaces are surrounded
by smaller palaces. Many of these buildings have a small courtyard. On both sides of the
public halls and the private palaces are smaller buildings. These were the
store rooms for the imperial family and the living rooms for servants in the
imperial household .
Of all three public halls in the Forbidden City the Hall of Supreme Harmony is the highest and most important
building. In the past it was the highest building in the city and a symbol of imperial
authority. It has been built in
the fifteenth century for public ceremonies such as the coronation of a new
emperor and his marriage or his anniversary. Other public ceremonies concerned
official affairs such as the appointment of military leaders. The ceremony started when the emperor entered the
hall with the sounds of fire crackers, drums beating and music playing.
In the hall is an elaborately decorated dragon throne. From this throne the
emperor presided the official meetings with his senior officials. His officials
had to kneel down for him and show him their respect and obedience. They were
not allowed to make any comments or objections to his decisions. Behind the hall of
Supreme Harmony is the Hall of Middle Harmony. In this hall the emperor
received his confidants, practised his speeches and made his last preparations
for the ceremony. The third hall is the Hall of Preserving Harmony which was used for state banquets
and later for imperial examinations.
The Gate of
Celestial Purity separates the public halls from the private palaces for the emperor and his family. Through the
gate one enters the courtyard of the first palace. The gate has gilded lions
on both sides of the entrance. The lion with a large ball under its leg
is the male lion. The ball represents his overall authority. The other lion with
a small cub under its leg is the female lioness. The cub represents her care
for the people. In the Palace of
Celestial Purity the emperors lived from the Ming dynasty up until the early Qing dynasty. Later the palace was an audience hall to settle government matters and
a reception hall for foreign envoys and senior officials. In the middle of the palace is a throne decorated with
dragons. In the palace there are other objects with a symbolic meaning. All
around the palace is a white marble balustrade. The painted ceiling shows a
fine work of artisanry. Behind the Palace of Celestial Purity is the Palace of
Celestial
and Terrestrial Union. Next is the Palace of Terrestrial
Tranquility. This palace leads to the imperial garden with a small path between rocks, trees and
pavilions.
The Summer Palace is twelve kilometres to the northwest of the Forbidden City. The palace is situated in a large park. The complex
has various halls, temples, pagodas and pavilions. It is enclosed by a hill in the north and
a lake in the south which covers three-quarter of the area. At the end of the nineteenth century the emperor gave order for the
construction of a new palace in the park. In a later period the imperial
family claimed tax money for the embellishment of the park. Each summer period
the imperial family visited this place in an effort to escape the dust and the
heat of the city and to enjoy a cool breeze of wind at the lake. A marble
bridge with seventeen arches led to an island in the middle of the lake. On
the island was a temple where the imperial family used to pray for rain.
At one side of the lake is a marble boat which was paid with money originally intended
for the modernization of the naval fleet. Another
curiosity in the park is the Hall of Happiness and Long Life. It still features the
original furniture of the imperial family and many precious objects of art. Near the village of Mutianyu north of Beijing the Great Wall swings through the surrounding mountains at an altitude of more than one thousand meters. In origin this part of the wall dates from the fifth century AD. At the time it was nothing more than an earthen wall. In the course of centuries it appeared not an efficient instrument of defense against invading enemies. For this reason the wall declined. The Ming emperors however restored the wall and reinforced it with bricks and stone slabs. In this period they added dilou or watchtowers at a regular distance from each other. The average height of the wall in this period was seven up to eight meters high. From this period on the Great Wall was a dike of earth, clay and stones held together on both sides with bricks and stoneslabs. On top of the rampart was a railing of approximately one and a half meter high. The wall did excellent service as a kind of elevated highway transporting people and equipment across mountainous areas. Its beacon tower system quickly transmitted news of enemy movements back to the capital by means of smoke signals. After the Ming period the wall was largely forgotten and again it structure declined. Recently some parts of the wall were restored in their original state as a reminder of the imperial past.
Xian is in the heartland of China at the downstream of the Yellow River. The city was already a capital of China
from the eleventh century BC. In the eighth century BC the capital was removed to the east, but the first emperor
chose Xian again as the capital of his empire. Since then Xian remained the
capital of the Chinese empire for many centuries. In the seventh century AD the
Tang emperors embellished the city with palaces,temples and monasteries within a new city wall. The city developed in
this period into a metropolis with more than one million inhabitants thanks to
the Silk Road. Merchants from Arab areas brought Islam to Xian. Travellers from
India brought Buddhism to the city. The Tang emperors accepted and even
encouraged these developments. Many imperial tombs near Xian are testimonies of the
economic prosperity and cultural achievements in this period. However in the tenth century
the Song emperors moved the capital of their empire to the east. In this period the city
went into decline. In the fifteenth century the new Ming emperors rebuilt the
centre of the city with a large city wall. However the city was never again a capital of the Chinese
empire.
Not far from Xian is the tomb of the first emperor in China
built in the third century BC. He was the founder of the Qin dynasty which ruled for a short
period. The imperial tomb has not yet been opened. Many people believe that it contains precious gifts and other treasures.
Nearby archaeologists have dug up a
terracotta army which had to protect the emperor against his enemies after his death. The army includes thousands
of statues of soldiers, horses and coaches in battle formation. They were moulded in local
manufactories
and have real life
dimensions. All figures have a similar square face with a large mouth and full lips. And they all have a distant look in their eyes.
Each soldier however has individual facial features. Some have a moustache while others have a beard. Some have their hair in
a knot and the head dress is always different. Only army officers carry helmets. A small part of the soldiers has a kneeling
position. These are probably the archers with a bow and arrow in their hands.
Traces of paint indicate that in the past these statues have had a colour which has now
disappeared.
The excavations of the terracotta army concentrate on three sites. Archaeologists expect to find more statues at other sites in the years to come. The first
site is an underground vault of earth and timber with eleven parallel
corridors on floors laid with grey brick. In each corridor the soldiers stand four to four
in battle formation. The vanguard appears to be three rows of crossbow and
longbow bearers. Close behind is the main force of armoured soldiers holding spears, dagger-axes and other long-shaft weapons, accompanied by horse-drawn chariots. The wall of
each corridor is made of rammed earth. Pillars and beams once supported a timber
roof. At some spots traces of these pillars and beams are still visible. A long
time ago plundering enemies have set the roof to fire so nothing remains. When
the roof collapsed it scorched and destroyed a part of the terracotta army but
many statues survived the devastation. A second vault also contains terracotta soldiers
in battle formation. In this vault the wall still holds a well preserved timber roof. A third vault is presumably
the army headquarters. It contains soldiers and a chariot. One statue is larger than the others. It is probably a general with his guards.
At some kilometres to the south west of the city centre in Xian is the Big
Wild Goose Pagoda. This pagoda was built in the middle of the seventh century AD at the request of a monk when
he returned from a pilgrimage to India. He asked the emperor to build a pagoda to store the Buddhist writings he brought
back from India. Later the monk became an abbot of a nearby monastery and dedicated the rest of his life to translating Buddhist writings into Chinese.
The pagoda used to be part of a large temple complex which was the centre of Buddhist art and science in East Asia.
In history however some emperors banned Buddhism as an exotic and inferior religion. Their imperial officials were eager to limit
the wealth and power of the monastery. In the middle of the ninth century the monks were prosecuted or executed and almost all
monasterial buildings were destroyed. The Big Wild Goose Pagoda is the only construction which survived these devastations.
In later periods the building was renovated and restored many times. In the centre of Xian is the Great Mosque. The mosque is in a district where many Hui or Muslims live and work. These Muslims are descendants of the Arab merchants who came to China along the Silk Road. The mosque was established in the eighth century AD. Many buildings in the complex however were built in a later period. Several times in history the mosque was restored and each time the complex extended its area. At present the complex is surrounded by a wall. It has four inner courtyards with gardens, pavilions an d extensions in Chinese style. The first courtyard has a timber arch. The second courtyard has a stone arch. At the entrance to the third courtyard is a hall with stone tablets and ancient texts engraved in Chinese and Arabic. In the middle of the courtyard is an octagonal pagoda with a triple roof and traditional Chinese tiles. The pagoda is in fact a minaret for the mosque. In the fourth and main courtyard is the prayer hall which dates from the Ming dynasty. The flush ceiling is made of panels with Arabic inscriptions. The mihrab or prayer niche has delicate timber carvings.
Xiahe is a village of thirteen thousand inhabitants at an altitude
of three thousand meters in the northwest of China. In the past the village was
an important border stop for the caravans along the Silk Road in the direction
of Tibet. At the beginning of the eighteenth century a local priest built a monastery near the village. Later
his successors established various related monasteries al over the country. The
Labrang monastery is one of the most influential monasteries of lamaism or
Tibetan Buddhism. This religion is a mixture of exotic Buddhism and local mysticism. It
has a special place for mysterious symbols and rituals. At the start of the People's Republic of China there were three thousand monks in the
monastery. During the Cultural Revolution however the buildings and many treasures inside were destroyed. The monks were forced
to look for another job. Later the damage has been repaired and the buildings have been restored. Gradually many monks returned to the monastery. At present two thousand monks
live in the monastery. They come from all parts of the country. The monastery is a centre of Buddhist art and science.
It has many sacred scrolls and books.
The Labrang monastery has six halls, eighty four temples and more than five hundred
The Labrang monastery is part of the gelugpa order. The monks live in celibacy and once a full monk they wear a yellow hat. Still young of age they move to the monastery to get an education and bring honour to their family. They become a monk at the age of seven. The intelligent boys go to college in the monastery. After a long period of hard study they might become a lama or abbot of the monastery. Many students however become a writer, poet or artist and depict religious scenes in words and pictures. Other students become a doctor, teacher or administrator. The highest authority in the monastery is in the hands of the lama who is believed to be a holy person and the reincarnation of a former saint. At the top of the organization is the Dalai Lama or Ocean of Wisdom and the Panchen Lama or Great Teacher who do not reside in the Labrang monastery. The colour of their clothes indicates the status of the monks. The rapjung or prenovices have a brownish red habit, the getsul or novices have a dark red habit, while the gelong have a dark red habit as well as a yellow hat.
Each day the Labrang monastery is visited by hundreds of pilgrims. They come from near and far in their finest dress. The
women wear dark clothes with a bright ribbon. They have their long black hair in braids tied together at the end. The pilgrims
walk the korlam or pilgrim route around the monastery. The route is three kilometers long. They walk this route clockwise like
the planets turn around the sun. All along the route are hundreds of manikhorkor or
prayer wheels in
long galleries. Every now and then is a shrine with Buddha statues around a large prayer wheel. The pilgrims turn around all
prayer wheels at least one time. When the wheel turns around it reads the mantras within and thus declares the devotion of
a pilgrim. Along the route the pilgrims mumble sutras or prayers in repetitive series. They have a rosary in the hand to keep count of their
prayers. Each time they turn around a bead in the rosary they mumble a sutra or the name of Buddha. When they are not praying they wear the
rosary as a bracelet around the wrist or as a collar around the neck.
Dali was built in the middle of the eighth century by the king of Nanzhao. The
town is situated on a small plateau enclosed by a lake and a mountain range.
All around the old town is a rectangular wall. The former southern gate is now
part of the town centre due to later architectural expansion. In the
south a new town wall has been constructed. The main road runs from north to
south. It is a wide lane with trees on both sides. The main road has water
tunnels on both sides. The water comes from the mountains nearby and
passes underneath the town wall to both sides of
the road. The main road is flanked by quiet residential lanes. Almost every
house has its own courtyard with a veranda. The back wall of each house is made
of granite while the front has windows and doors made of wood. The doors and
posts are decorated with elaborate wood carvings. Most houses have two floors,
the upper floor is used for storage. On the roof
of the house are tiles. In the early twentieth century the
walls used to be plastered and decorated with white and
black arabesques as a reminiscence of former Mongol presence. Dali is situated in the area of the old caravan routes to Tibet, Burma and India at the junction of east to west and north to south in both directions. Local muleteers, mainly Muslims and Chinese, transport precious goods like tea, silk and cotton over high mountains and low valleys along wild rivers and through dense forests on the backs of their mules in groups of almost fifty animals. It takes ten men to guide the pack of mules. They prefer quiet mountain tracks without any traffic to scare the mules. These tracks however are very slippery when it has rained. The mules are familiar with these tracks which they have walked many times. The trip takes about two weeks before they reach their destination. Along the way they stop at caravan serais which provide poor lodges and cheap meals. They try to avoid large settlements because town regulations impede a smooth passage. When they arrive at their destination they transfer the goods to another team of muleteers for the next part of the transport. On the spot they receive a new load of goods to transport the same way back.
Dali is a residence for many people of the Bai minority. In general the Bai are farmers who
cultivate rice. In the past they also cultivated opium for cash. In the late
nineteenth and early twentieth century the cultivation of opium was prohibited.
Since then the Bai cultivate rice as their main crop and wheat as their second
crop in the winter period. Both men and women work in the fields. The
women sell all surplus in the market. They bring the surplus to the market
place in heavy baskets on their back. A ribbon around their forehead gives them
extra support and keeps the heavy basket in
balance. The women also have domestic duties when they return home from their
work in the field or in the market. The people near the lake have turned to agriculture and
fisheries. The Bai people neglect other opportunities in their natural
environment for economic exploitation. For example there is no livestock
farming on the mountain
pastures. There is no hunting or fruit gathering in the mountain forests. On a
limited scale they cut the trees in the forests to decorate the front of their
houses. The same is true for digging granite to decorate the back of their
houses.
All Bai farmers have one or more members of the
family living in Dali town. They run a small business on the ground floor of their house
where they have installed a sewing machine or an embroidery workshop. Others
have a stone masonry or a manufactory for making hats or shoes. They fabricate their
products according to
local tradition and sell them in their own shop in a separate part of their
house. Other examples of a local family business in Dali are the butcheries, the
bakeries and teahouses. Wealthy landlords have a residence in town to invite
their friends and associates for a
dinner party. Once in town they repose in one of the many teahouses or visit the
shops and markets where local merchants sell their merchandise. Periodically there are larger markets
for merchants in the whole region like horse traders from Tibet and copperware
dealers from Lijiang. Other town citizens in Dali are entrepreneurs and
merchants who are engaged in financial trade and import business. In most cases
these people are Chinese immigrants from other parts of
the country and have no family ties with the local population. Dali has changed considerably in the course of the twentieth century. Except for the town gates and the restored town wall little remains of its original architecture. The stone pavement in the streets and some buildings remind of the past as well. The same is true for three pagodas nearby the old town which were built in the ninth century AD by civil engineers from imperial Xian. Many old houses however have declined and were replaced by new constructions. The original inhabitants have left and modern entrepreneurs have taken their place. Many of them are immigrants from outside the region who have no family ties with the locals. Dali has only few traditional workshops left in town and the colourful markets of old times have virtually disappeared. The former trade caravans no longer pass through the area. Instead touring -cars full of tourists visit the old town and souvenir shops dominate the streets in town. The souvenirs are fabricated in modern factories outside the region and imported along modern motorways. The actual inhabitants of Bai origin are hardly visible any more within the crowd.
More than twenty kilometres north of Dali is the old village of Xizhou
with a market each day of the week.At the market people buy food like fish, meat,, vegetables and cereals. They also buy
local made goods like batik shirts and shoes with embroidery. The batik shirts are manufactured according to
strict regulation in special workshops. First the artisan draws a design on the textile, then he covers the part which
must remain white by sewing beads into the textile. Then he dips the shirt in a wooden tub with a dark blue
dye. Finally he hangs the shirt out to dry. In Xizhou the original Bai architecture has been well
preserved and some tea houses still have a traditional appearance. Some Bai women in local dress still gather in front of one of these tea
houses when they return from the market. Many people in Wase also wear local Bai dress. Wase is a village near the lake with a
market every week for fish and fruit. The fruit comes from orchards on the dry eastern shore of the lake.
Merchants also sell fire wood, marble and granite from the mountain ranges along the western shore of the lake.
They bring these products to Wase by boat. Both trade and transport are in the hands of the Bai.
Not only local dress makes the Bai people feel unique and different from the people elsewhere in China. Their language is
different as well, although many of them are bilingual. Their social relations are also different. The parents arrange the wedding
of their children by mediation of a mutual friend. It is not permitted to have intimate relationships before marriage. The parents
of the groom pay a dowry to the parents of the bride. Sometimes it happens that a young woman is abducted by her lover
who has not been chosen by the parents. This practice is accepted on condition that the couple gets married and pays an indemnity to the parents. The woman comes
to live in the hao or the parental house of her husband. As long as the parents live
the married sons continue to live there with their family. It is not customary that a woman divorces her husband and returns to the house of her parents.
In rich families the man sometimes has a concubine when the marriage is no success and there is no offspring.
Some rich have a servant girl from a poor family for domestic work. In the Bai language the word hao means both family and a house. Every house is the home of some family. The home is of central importance in their social organization. They have few institutions which transcend the family or kin group. One of them is the village community where the worship of Ber Dser or the Founder is not confined to the local headman or his descendants but extends to all villagers. But most of all the village is a group of families which are interrelated on the female side. The family is the social unit in which each person passes his whole life. If he is a peasant farmer, he cultivates fields held jointly with his brothers, if he turns to business he becomes a partner or assistant in a family shop or small business in which none but kinsmen are employed. The Bai marry only within their own village. It even occurs that people with the same surname marry each other. However many of these traditions tend to disappear because of the rise of a new middle class from outside the region. Modern communication and education lead to a loss of old traditions as well. In part these developments come together with the rise of mass tourism.
Nowadays the Bai religion is a mixture of Chinese influences with the worship of
local gods and spirits. Like many others they practise rites for the ancestral
spirits at a shrine in their homes. They also worship some Buddhist saints as gods who offer
protection against evil spirits. They think Kuan Yin the mother of mercy
is the most important goddess who dominates all other gods. They also worship a
Taoist god called Tung Yueh. He is the god of the underworld who liberates the
dead from their torments and promotes the fertility of young women. These gods
even have their own festivals. In honour of these gods the Bai people burn
incense and spirit money. They also have festivals for local
gods such as Lur Wa the dragon king of
the lake and Sai Sur the mountain god where they perform the same rituals. They
also worship various ser or spirits of lesser status in small temples or at
shrines near motorways, water springs, rock formations and strips of forest. In the villages still
live sai dser or shamans who dispel evil spirits in case of disease by chanting
and dancing.
Since many ages there are water canals throughout the old town of
Lijiang. They lead to water wells which are constructed in three layers. In
the past the upper layer was used for drinking water. The second layer was
used for cleaning food and vegetables. The third layer was used for washing
and cleaning clothes. In recent years the old town of Lijiang has witnessed
many changes. An earthquake in the late twentieth century has unfortunately
devastated many building. They are however restored in original style. Due
to the influx of many tourists the original inhabitants in the old town have
left their houses and settled somewhere else. They have sold their houses to
modern entrepreneurs who turned them into shops, restaurants and taverns.
Despite strict regulations to keep all buildings in an original state of
architecture they lost their function as a home for the family. The sound of
whispering adults and crying children has been replaced by the sound of loud
karaoke music from high-tech media players. Empty streets at night have been
replaced by tourist crowds looking for some entertainment. Naxi women have a prominent place in their social organization. They are
the leaders within the yidu or family and set the tasks in their family
business and household. The dabu or family head is a
woman who manages the family properties and administers its activities. The home
of each family counts for three or four generations in one house. In general the oldest woman
is the dabu or head of the house. When se dies the dabu assigns her
duties of the family leader to the most competent woman in the house. Her
successor also inherits all family properties. In the case of a controversy the
dabu passes a judgment which binds all family members. The men live and work
all their life in the home of their mother. They do not marry or live
together with another woman. Instead they spend the night in the house of their
partner. Children from this tisese relation belong to the woman and her family.
She takes care of their education together with the other women in her
family. Sometimes the child does not even know who his biological mother is.
Sometimes the men look after the children of the women in
their family. Nowadays many of these traditions have become obsolete.
In the past Naxi women were leaders of the family business and mediators for the
merchants in the trade caravans from India and Burma. At the market square in the centre of the old town they ran a small
inn or restaurant which was frequented by merchants, porters and muleteers. The
merchants bought and sold their commodities in the family shops run by the naxi
women at the old town square. The Naxi women established various manufactories
which specialized in local products like furniture, shoes, textile and brass
shops. Nowadays the Naxi women still have a prominent place in economic and social life.
They are omnipresent in the restaurants and shops all around the centre of old
Lijiang town. At the market square they have for example a thriving business in traditional
bakery products and traditional Naxi dress. Their former local clients
have disappeared however. Instead tourists from outside town visit their shops
and restaurants. Many of them come from different parts of the world. The
old town is no longer an isolated area in China where time stood still.
The code of dress for the Naxi women has not changed in hundreds of years. They
wear a blue shirt and trousers with a blue or black apron. They wear a cape in the shape of a capital letter "t". The cape offers protection against the heavy baskets which
they carry on their back. The upper part of the cape at the backside is a dark blue strip of textile which
represents the dark night. The lower part of the cape at the backside is made of cream coloured silk or sheep skin
which represents the daylight. Each half is separated from the other by seven
circles which
symbolize
the stars and the moon. In the past the women applied two larger circles on
each shoulder of the cape. They represented the eyes of a frog who was an important god for the Naxi
people up until the fifteenth century AD. This primitive belief however has become
uncommon in the present day community. As a result the frog eyes are no longer
part of their dress. But the name of their dress still reminds of the old beliefs.
Nowadays the religion of the Naxi is a mixture of Buddhism, Lamaism, Islam and Taoism.
In the past the local headmen were always men. The Naxi men
were also the spiritual caretakers of the traditional community. They were the
dongbas
or shamans who acted as mediators between humans and spirits. They wrote their
spiritual beliefs down in pictograms. They were the only ones who could read and
write these pictograms. It was not a reproduction of their oral language, but rather
a string of symbols to prompt their rites. Singing and dancing were part of
these rites to attract the attention of the
spirits. There are three groups of rituals. First there are sacrifices for the
gods and the ancestral spirits, then there are rituals to release the dead and
finally there is exorcism to dispel evil spirits. In social and economic life Naxi have
a less prominent position. Many of them are active as a gardener or musician.
Their music is in origin taoist ceremonial music introduced by the Mongols
in the thirteenth century AD. The music has kept its authenticity in the Naxi community and was mixed with local elements.
In recent years there is revival of traditional Naxi music orchestras after an official ban during the cultural revolution in the sixties of the last century.
In general the Tibetans still wear traditional clothing. Men wear a chuba
or heavy cloak made of sheep wool. They wear it on one shoulder and tie it
around the waist with a woven or leather belt. They keep personal things like a
knife under their coat. As for the men the chuba usually
reaches to their knee. As for the women it reaches to their ankles. The
sleeves are shorter for the women. Underneath the chuba they wear filt coloured
boots with a leather sole. The men have various types of headgear. The women
wear a light coloured apron which consists of three strips of woven textile with horizontal lines.
The women wear jewelry which shows their wealth such as bead necklaces and
silver hairpins, bracelets or rings. They also wear well decorated charms around
the neck and a gawu or box made of gold and silver with sacred relics and
mantras. The charms around the neck are images of patron saints who protect them
against misfortune. Men and women alike have a pouch tied to their
belt in which they used to keep flint stones. The women
carry their hair in two braids which they bind together around the head with a ribbon.
Their headgear is often a bright coloured scarf.
Since many centuries Ping An is a village of peasant farmers who engaged in
the cultivation of rice, cereals and sweet potatoes. They also grow peppers, garlic, radishes and bamboo
as well as cucumbers and tomatoes. The village is frequented by many people of
the Yao
minority. In origin the Yao are from an area along the Yangtze river
in the central south of China. They left the area six hundred years ago when Han
Chinese settlers came to the region. The Yao discovered that in and around Ping An
there was an abundance of natural water supply up until the mountain top.
Many generations have established wet rice terraces on the mountain slopes.
They lead the water in bamboo pipes along the terraces. The cultivation of rice is
their main source of existence. The terraces have transformed the mountain ridge and for this reason the entire area
is called Longsheng or Dragon Backbone. Because the wet rice terraces are up against a steep mountain slope,
it not possible to plough the fields by means of an ox cart. Instead the Yap women pull the plough on the rice fields.
The Yao women have long
hair . They let it grow until they are adolescent. Then
they cut it and use it is as a hairpiece. Once their hair has grown again to full length
they weave the piece into the new hair. They wrap their black and shiny hair in a spiral on their head
and bind it together with a black turban made of wool or cotton. They tie the turban in various shapes and wear
a knot at the front.
Despite local variations their dress is different from other people in China. They wear a pink vest
with hand woven sleeves which have geometrical designs. The collar is embroidered by hand. Around the waist
they wear an embroidered ribbon with silver tresses. They wear a plyfold skirt up until the knees
and a black legging. The women prefer silver jewelry. They have silver ear rings which stretch the earlobes
and silver bracelets with a design birds and flowers. Sometimes the men wear silver jewelry as well.
In many respects their dress is not different from other people in China. Like many others they prefer
a nice shirt and trousers made in a modern factory.
The Yao have their own oral language. There are local dialects with considerable
differences because they live dispersed in a large area. Most of them speak and
write in Chinese as well. They do not have their own writing. But they are proud
of their oral tradition and love the songs of elder generations. These songs are
about their history and the creation of heaven and earth. They are often serious
about the meaning of life. But sometimes they tell a happy tale. Since
many generations young
couples declare their love for each other in a song. This way oral traditions
have become a substantial part of their life. They often use a long drum as a
musical instrument. They also use the drum to honour their ancestors and to celebrate
a good harvest. Some of these drums are decorated with birds, flowers,
dragons and phoenixes. Other drums have bells in the middle and at the end.
Other Yao instruments are wooden wind instruments. Their music and their songs
are often a testimony of their religious beliefs. Their religion is a mixture of Chinese
buddhism or taoism and the worship of local gods and spirits. They also have a
cult to honour their ancestors. In recent years the old village of Ping An has seen gradual change due to the
rise of tourism. Yet the local people still adhere to their traditions. It is
one of the attractions for many visitors. Tourism in Ping An is still on a small
scale. The Yao women show tourists who happen to pass by how they make up
their hair. They have their picture taken in local dress at a picturesque spot
on top of a mountain slope
with a view on the village below and the rice terraces. But the number of
tourists who visit their village grows fast. Many buildings in the village
are turned into a guest house or restaurant where
local families offer food and lodgings to visitors. Most of
these guesthouses are new and have been built in the last few years. The village
has no souvenir shops yet, but
in small booths near the village the local inhabitants sell their handmade products such as rice
wine and embroidery. Some years ago the authorities authorized the
construction of a modern motorway to the foot of the mountain and for the ease
of the modern tourists they introduced electricity cables to illuminate the
small tracks and staircases up the mountain. Now visitors to Ping An even have
access to
the Internet.
Fitzgerald, C.P.
- "The Tower of Five Glories", edition by Caravan Press.
Flower, Kathy
- "Cultuur Bewust! China", edition in the series Culture Smart by
CultureShock! Consulting (Dutch)
Harper, Damian e.a.
- "China", edition in a series of travel guides by Lonely Planet
Jansen, Inge en Karin
Schaedtler - "China", edition in a series of travel guides by Dominicus
(Dutch)
Mitchell, Sam
- "Ethnic Minority Issues in Yunnan", edition by Yunnan Fine Arts Publishing House
Namjiyal, Gonbo
- "Journey through Labrang Culture",
edition by Lanzhou University Press
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