Henk Sebregts 

 Home Sitemap Help Questions New Search Contact

 

India 

The Far East in Words and Pictures 
 
 

 

Information
 

 

 Search for keyword:

 

 

Orissa

Orissa is situated between West-Bengal and Bihar in the north, Bay of Bengal in the east, Andhra Pradesh in the south and Madhya Pradesh in the west. When one thinks of Orissa, one has rice in mind. Rice is the most important crop: 75 percent of the population depends on rice for a living.  Orissa is a peasant state with only few large cities and little industrialisation. The fertile coastal area  is densely populated compared to the interior part of the country. Orissa is one of the least developed states in India.  A majority of its population lacks sufficient means of existence and almost half of its citizens is analphabetical. The state has 37 million inhabitants, a quarter of them belongs to the ethnic and cultural minorities (tribals).  The common language is Oriya.

The landscape consists of a small and fertile coastal area which transforms into the hills of the Eastern  Ghats and into the Central High Plains. Many small and large rivers flow through the state to the Bay of Bengal. During the monsoon rains these rivers leave their course and cause much damage to the soil. Their irregular course forges to build expensive bridges and railways. In the small Machakund river a hydraulic power plant is constructed. The naerby Duduma-waterfall is 165 metres high. In the east Lake Chilika is the largest salt lake in India. In origin it was part of the Bay of Bengal, but in time the formation of sandy dunes turned it into a separate lake. The climate is influenced by a southwest monsoon and also by a retreating northeast monsoon causing much rain. During the months of october and november when the monsoon retreats sometimes a cyclone appears causing much damage to the coast.

In former times Orissa was part of a kingdom called Kalinga. On top of their power the Kalinga kings came into a conflict with emperor Ashoka. In 260 B.C. Ashoka defeated the Kalinga dynasty and destroyed their army. But the emperor was shocked by the senseless killing. He abstained from violence and was converted to buddhism. Later, with the introduction of hinduism, a golden age began in the region. From  9th century onwards thousands of temples were built. Many of them are well conserved, despite demolition by intruding muslim armies. Between 16th and 19th century the region was ruled by Moghuls, Afghans and Maraths. In this period the first Europeans came to Orissa.  The Portuguese arrrived in 1514, followed by the Dutch in 1625. In 1803 the British came to power. Half a century before they had defeated their European rivals at the Battle of Plassey in the northern region of Bengal. The British divided the area in three districts. Each of these districts was governed by a different administration. At times the people stood up against the British government. The British territorial division crossed natural and linguistic boundaries. After many requests of the Oriya people the British formed a province Orissa on 1 april 1936. The present state Orissa was formed in 1949 by admitting interior territories still within the natural boundaries of the area.

Many centuries Orissa has been a focal point for different cultures and migrations from other parts of the country.  These influences found an expression in the Oriya temples and cults, in music and dance, paintings and popular art. Temples in Orissa are famous for their architecture called Kalinga style. A temple of this style consists of a structural duo, the main temple or shrine and the frontal porch. While the main temple called viman or deul, is the sanctum enshrining the deity, the porch or assembly hall called jagamohan is the place for the congregation of devotees. The former constructed on a square base, has a soaring curvilinear tower (sikhar) and is known as rekha deula. The latter built on a rectangular base is a pidha temple, i.e. its root consists of pidhas which are horizontal platforms arranged succesively in a receding formation so as to constitute a pyramidical superstructure. Although the two temples are architecturally different, they are constructed in axial alignment and interconnected so as to form an integral pattern. Some of the Oriyan temples are among the finest in the world. Of these three are most famous: the Lingaraj Mandir at Bhubaneswar (11th century), the Jagannath temple at Puri (12th century) and the great Sun Temple at Konark (13th century).

The culture of Orissa means the cult of Jagannath and the cult of Jagannath means the synthesis of varied religions. In the ancient past Jagannath was worshipped by the original inhabitants or adivasis in the interior of Orissa. Centuries later his cult was described in various Sanskrit works. In the course of time Jagannath was embraced by other religions like Jains and Buddhists. Consequently the cult of Jagannath came to be regarded as the religion of the masses. The cult of Jagannath provides a common religious institution to all hindus irrespective of their castes and sects. The harijans and adivasis are admitted into the Jagannath temples. In the centre of the temple are the statues of Jagannath and of his brother Balabhadra and his sister Subhadra. Their rudimental form reminds of a tribal origin. Another indication of its tribal origin is the presence of priests or daitas who are considered Jagannath's relatives. It is assumed that they are descendants of the adivasis. Only the daitas are allowed to touch the divine statues. 

The Odissi is one of the six acknowledged classical dance forms of India. Like all other classical dances, for that matter like all Indian art forms, it has its initiation in religion and philosophy. Sculptures and architecture of the Oriya temples have largely influenced other arts – such as the classical dance, Odissi, which is often described as a sculptured movement with poses reflecting the temple images in Orissa. One of the most famous dancers of this moment is Madhumita Mishra. She represents the cultural heritage of Orissa by her performances in and out of the state. Flyers describe her performances as an outcome of dances by female dancers (devadasis) of lord Jagannath temple.  Madhumita Mishra has had an education in classical dance and music, she also is a science graduate and has a post-graduate diploma in computer application. 

All Oriya paintings, the Bitt chitra or mural paintings, the Pata chitra or textile paintings and the Talapatra chitra or palm engravings, have more or less the same style and the same subject. The art of painting is influenced by the cult of temples. The most important wall paintings are to be found in temples.  There is a rich culture of wall paintings among the Kondh tribes. They paint geometric motives on their walls. The subject of many textile paintings is limited to religious themes like the story of Rama and Krishna.The palm engravings traditionally depict temples, gods and chariots.

The folkart of Orissa is connected with its social and religious activities. In the harvesting season, when grain is trashed and stored, the mud walls and floors are decorated with murals in white rice paste. They are called  jhoti and are drawn not merely with the intention of decorating the house, but to establish a relationship between the mystical and the material, thus being highly symbolical and meaningful. Throughout the year, the village women perform several rituals for the fulfilment of their desires. For each occasion, a specific motif is drawn on the floor or on the wall, for instance a stack of paddy structured like a pyramid and white dots superimposed with red are painted on the walls. To draw a jhoti  the fingers are dipped into the rice paste and made to trace out intricate patterns on the floor or walls. Sometimes a kind of brush is prepared from a twig to one end of which a small piece of cloth is attached.  Muruja is drawn on the floor with powders of different hues. Indigenous methods are used to get colour powders. White powder is obtained from the grinding of stones, green powder is obtained from dry leaves, black from burnt coconut shells, yellow from the petals of marigold flower or turmeric and red from clay or bricks.

In recent times Orissa has become a popular travel destination for tourists. The most important tourist attractions are in the so called Golden Triangle: the temples of Bhubaneswar, the temple of Lord Jagannath in Puri and the Great Sun Temple in Konark. These temples are architectural treasures in the history of hinduism and famous all over the world. Near the coast is a beach place called Gopalpur-on-Sea and Lake Chilika. In the interior country one can make an adivasi tour along villages of ethnic minorities. These minorities or tribals are descendants of the original inhabitants in India. Some of them are formally converted to christianism, but most of them are animists. Many tribals live in isolated districts such as Phulabani, Rayagada and Koraput in the southwestern part of Orissa. In nearby districts one can visit rural hindu villages like Itamati and Gopinathpur in Nayagarh province.  The village of Chandaragiri in Gajapati district shelters a buddhist minority: a community of Tibetan refugees who fled from the Chinese occupating their country in the late twentieth century.

Back to index

 

Bhubaneswar Video Bhubaneswar

Bhubaneswar has 650.000 inhabitants. Some 2000 years ago  here the main capital city of the royal kingdom of Kalinga was situated. The city known as Ekamrakshetra was a prominent religious centre. The inhabitants believed the city was a favourite residence of their god Shiva. In 1950 again Bhubaneswar was proclaimed to be the main capital of  Orissa in stead of the overcrowded city of Cuttack. Bhubaneswar is a unique mixture of old and new. The new city is a fast growing town with modern buildings on the eve of a large-scale industrialisation. Still much influence of the surrounding countryside is revealed in the streets. In parks and borders poor peasants build their dwellings and try to sell vegetables, fruits and handicrafts. The old city in the south is known as the city of temples. In former times there were over 7000 temples. Although many of them were destroyed by the Moghuls, still 500 temples remained. The most important sites in Bhubaneswar are the temples built between  eighth and thirteenth century. Among them the Lingaraj Mandir is considered the epitome of Orissan architecture. 

Most temples are near the artificial lake of Bindu Sagar or Ocean Drop. The lake is believed to contain water from every holy river in India. Local people replenish the water in the lake when they return from their pilgrimage. They pour out bottles of water taken from other sacred places like the river Ganges. A bath in the lake brings ritual purification.  In the past the lake was surrounded by seven thousand temples. These hindu temples represented a cult of fertility which is still apparent in the ancient temple architecture with its large phallic towers and its erotic sculptures. Many of these temples have been damaged or destroyed in the sixteenth century  by the Moghuls who considered the sculpures indecent. One of the temples near the lake is the Ananta Vasudev temple. This temple is built in 1278. It is dedicated to Balabhadra and Subhadra – brother and sister of  Jagannath. It resembles the temple of Lord Jagannath in Puri. Inside the temple priests sell the sacred food (prasad) to the people.

The Mukteswar Mandir is a temple from the tenth century. Its architecture is a typical example for a transition period between the early Kalinga style and the later Kalinga style. Although the jagamohan still has many characteristics of the early period, it has evolved as an independent structure in stead of being a mere front porch for the temple proper.  Both the jagamohan and the main temple are constructed on high platforms with sculptured walls.  The jagamohan has a pyramidical roof. Till this time the temples were squats, earth bound. In front of the building there is a superb arch gate or torana, decorated with buddhas and makara’s, mythological crocodiles. The temple is covered with delicate sculptures.  In the sanctuary there is a lingam with a cobra, the symbol of Shiva. Behind the building is a pond used by the local people as a bathing place. Nearby in the same area is the Siddeswar Mandir. This temple was built much later. It lacks the delicacy and intricacies of the details in the sculptures of Mukteswar Mandir. The niches in the outer wall of the complex show hindu statues as well as buddhist and jainist statues, which indicates a concurrence of different religions in Orissa.

The most famous temple in Bhubaneswar is the Lingaraj Mandir. The temple is dedicated to Lingaraj or  Shiva as “lord of the universe”.  The sanctuary is over 1000 years old and was built by the royal dynasties of Kesari and Ganga. The Lingaraj temple is located in a complex of various temples of different deities, the most important being Siva, wife Parvati or Bhubaneswari (the mistress of the world) and their son Ganesh, the elephant headed god of endeavour, knowledge and success. The building dominates the city of Bhubaneswar and its soaring spire dominates the landscape for miles. In addition to the deul and jagamohan or hall like porch, it has two new features: the hall of dance and the pavillion of offerings. Only hindus are allowed to enter the temple. The temple is surrounded by a massive stone wall. A viewing gallery has been specially built for non-hindus on the north side of the complex. 

The Raj Rani Mandir is a graceful temple from the beginning of the 11th century. It is set in the open and has not been built around and gives a wonderful sight in a large garden when the setting of the sun forms a dramatic backdrop to the chiselled lines of the fine structure. Many connect its name to the type of stone used to build this temple. The dark brown is called the raja and lighter yellowish-hued is called the rani. The jagamohan or the outer hall is almost devoid of decorations, because of many restorations, whereas the main temple is exquisitely carved which appears unnatural. The sculptures of horseriders and dancers represent grace and beauty. This temple is another example of the experimental and original tendencies of Orissan architects. The main tower or deul brings out a totally different concept. The main tower soars above a number of minor towers as a major peak above a number of lesser summits.  

The temple of Brahma - the Brahmeswar Mandir – is two kilometers outside the city. The temple was built in the 11th century. In architecture and sculpture it resembles Mukteswar Mandir. Despite a remarkable similarity the Brahmeswar Mandir has more developed sculptured panels especially meant for musicians and dancers. The sanctuary is constructed on a platform surrounded by a wall, with little sikhars on each of four corners. For the first time in history the use of iron beams is noticed here. 

On the other side of Bhubaneswar about eight kilometers away, are the Jain caves of Khandagiri and Udaygiri. The rock-cut caves built for jain monks are a rare specimen of Indian cave carvings and art. The caves were cut in the second and first century B.C. in the hills to offer a refuge to the royal family of Kalinga kings, after their defeat in the battle against emperor Ashoka. In this period and later still jain hermits lived in the caves to meditate. The caves on Udaygiri hill are most interesting. The caves are cut on different heights and each cave has a number. The caves comprise one hermitage or more. Some of the caves have a porch with columns in front. Altogether there are eighteen caves on Udaygiri hill. The Rani Nur Gumpha, the Queen's Cave right down the hill, is built by king Kharvela in the second century B.C. The cave has two stores and four hermitages each. The walls show pictures of jain legends and portraits of Kalinga kings.  The sculptured friezes depict well known legends and historical scenes as well as religious themes. The Hathi Gumpha or Elephant Cave has an inscription - a rock edict in Pali language- of king Kharvela. In front of the Ganesh Gumpha there are two stone elephants. The walls above the entrance to each hermitage have marvellous sculptures, with hunting scenes and a picture of Buddha underneath the bodhi tree. In the right cell there is a statue of Ganesh. Khandagiri hill has fifteen caves. Its main attraction is the Ananta cave.  

With the power and prominence of the mighty king Kharvela ancient Kalinga became an important seat of jainism in entire eastern India. King Kharvela was a staunch Jain and a great patron of culture. Although he was tolerant of all faiths, Jainism was injected with a fresh vigour and made the state religion during his long tenure and it was he who got 117 caves excavated at a great cost on these hills for the Jain monks to meditate. However, most of the caves were destroyed by large scale landslides.  After the kingdom broke apart in the second century A.D. buddhism was a widespread religion to make way for hinduism in the eighth century A.D. From this period on many temples dedicated to Shiva were built in and around Bhubaneswar like Lingaraj Mandir. Many of these temples were constructed by the royal Kesari dynasty which dismayed buddhism and at the same time accepted a revival of jainism. The two hills are still popular destinations for the people of Orissa. Many priests and believers of different faiths roam at the foot of these hills and their surroundings. The hills are part of a pilgrim route for sadhus who endeavour a reinforcement of their karma. Many locals visit the hills with their families to relax in the presence of the gods.  

Back to index

 

Puri Video Puri

Puri has 150.000 inhabitants. The city is situated near the Bay of Bengal at a 60 kilometer distance from Bhubaneswar. The city is famous for being the residence of lord Jagannath, a manifestation of Vishnu, and is a revered place of pilgrimage in India. Its main attraction is the temple of lord Jagannath which is situated on a platform and dominates the city. The Grand Road leads from the temple to a bus station. The road is very wide in order to prevent a congestion of  hundreds and thousands of visitors who want to see the Car Festival.  At the festival thousands of people pull the divine chariots down the road. The first chariot is for Lord Jagannath and reaches up to fifteen meters height. It has sixteen wheels to carry a weight of one hundred tons. When the chariot moves it is hard to stop. In the past people threw themselves in front of the chariot and their limbs were crushed by its wheels. These martyrs were considered to enter paradise. Even now pilgrims in a furious piety get their arms and legs shattered or mutilated by the moving chariots. Shops and stalls along Grand Road sell religious souvenirs. The Grand Road and its narrow sideroads surrounding the temple are crowded with deformed people and roaming cows.  

The temple of lord Jagannath in Puri was built during the reign of king Chodaganga Deva in 1198 A.D.  This king was part of the Ganga dynasty who reigned Orissa until 1435. The sanctuary is only open for hindus. Within the complex there are no differences between the various hindu castes. The lord Jagannath knows no discrimination. His holy food or mahaprasad  can be taken by the people of all castes sitting together. Non-hindus can see the complex from the roof of the library on the opposite of the temple. The red flags at the white top of the high tower of the temple are visible from great distance. The temple complex is surrounded by a massive, six metres high, stone wall which has four entrances. The main entrance is the Lion Gate with on each side two stone lions. The main part of the complex has four buildings: 1. the 65 metres high sikhar or sanctuary; 2. the jagamohan or assembly hall; 3. the natamandap or dancing hall; 4. the bhogamandap or refractory. The refractory is a large kitchen, where food is prepared for more than 6000 people, and it immediately attracts the attention of spectators. 

Within the sikhar or sanctuary of the temple there are statues of lord Jagannath, his brother Balabhadra and his sister Subhadra. Their rudimental form reminds of a tribal origin. Another indication of its tribal origin is the presence of priests or daitas who are considered Jagannath's relatives. It is assumed that they are descendants of the adivasis. Only the daitas are allowed to touch the divine statues. Once the sculptures on the sikhar were covered with white plaster. 

The temple of Lord Jagannath is the largest not only in Puri but in the rest of Orissa as well. A different attraction in Puri is its sandy beach. There are no parasols, seats, chairs or palmtrees. Indian tourists and pilgrims love to walk along the shore and prefer to go into the water fully dressed.

Back to index

 

Konark Video Konark

Konark is 35 kilometres away from Puri and 65 kilometres from Bhubaneswar. There is a bus service from these cities to Konark. The place has 13.500 inhabitants. The main attraction in Konark is the magnificent Great Sun Temple located at the seaside.  The temple is Kalinga architecture at its peak  and is part of the Unesco program for world monuments. The whole temple was conceived as a gigantic chariot for the sun god Surya. The chariot was represented by twentyfour intricately carved out gigantic wheels and seven sculptured horses at the basement of the structure. This itself was a revolutionary architectural concept. Every detail of the building has a double symbolic meaning. The wheels for example represent time and motion. It is believed that a visitor who stands in front of one of the wheels can see in its shadow what time of the day it is. 

Thousands of erotic sculptures on the walls have been covered in sand during the era of the puritan Moghuls. Once they were a purely religious form of art without any intention of sexual arousement. The girls in the arms of their lovers depicted on the many sculptures which decorate the walls and the wheels of the Great Sun Temple all seem more or less identical. This reveals weariness of the artist who was forced to produce as many sculptures as possible without any creativity. Although the Kama Sutra mentions thirty two love positions only six or seven were depicted. Many pilgrims in the past probably took these images for granted and passed them without giving them much attention. Some pious men will have responded to these religious impulses by sexual intercourse with a temple prostitute, but any physical attraction was rarefied by devotion.  

The ladies depicted on the walls of the Great Sun Temple are known as devadasis or servants of the gods. In the past they were selected with great care by government officials. The noble virgins in the highest of seven ranks were treated with outmost respect. They were well rewarded for their services at the royal court. Apart from sexual favours to courtiers and generous contributions to the temple treasuries they spended most of their time to the maintenance of the divine statues. In fact they were undercover agents of traditional beliefs and values.  They were expected to be attractive, educated and entertaining. The devadasi system still exists in a clandestine and criminal context as many brothels in the large cities are supplied with innocent victims from remote villages. 

The folklore speaks of Samba, son of Krishna, who built the temple in gratitude for his cure from lepra. In reality the temple was constructed by Narasimhadeva I of the  Ganga-dynasty (1238-1264). In fear for muslim invaders the statue of the sun god was evacuated from the sanctuary in the seventeenth century. Later the temple was abandoned and neglected. In the beginning of the twentieth century, when British archaeologists removed the sand and rubble, the magnificent temple appeared in all glory.  

Stalls near the road to the main entrance sell souvenirs and imitations of temple artefacts. Behind the main entrance two stone lions trample a stone elephant. A stair leads to the natamandap, a dancing hall without a roof. On the walls there are fine sculptures, like a woman washing her hair, a girl with a mirror, female musicians and dancers. The main temple is behind the dancing hall. The building consists of the jagamohan and the deul. The deul has collapsed so it is hard to imagine the enormous size of the building in former times. It looks like seven stone horses are ready to move the temple built as a chariot. To suggest a chariot 24 gigantic stone wheels are sculptured in the temple walls. They have minuscule erotic sculptures. Sculptures higher on the walls depict lovers in explicit sexual positions. One can climb on the collapsed deul to get a good look at the statues of the sun god Surya. These three statues catch the light of the rising sun, the sun at noon and the setting sun. On the left side and the right side of the jagamohan group statues of horses and elephants trample a human being.

Back to index

 

Adivasis Video Adivasis

Almost 24% of the people in Orissa are part of a tribal minority. The state has 62 ethnic groups with big differences in religious customs, economic development and social integration. The adivasis or tribals are desendants of the original inhabitants in India. They live in the hills in the interior part of the country. Some tribals are christians due to missionary activities, but most are animists. Although christian missionaries have gained access to the tribal areas in an attempt to obliterate tribal beliefs and traditions, their endeavours have limited success. The tribals convert to christianity in return for food and medicine, but they do not give up on their beliefs and traditions. They still worship the sun and soil as generators of life. The minorities have a cultural tradition of dance and music. They manufacture their own artefacts from natural resources. The women wear bracelets, necklaces, earrings and nosepiercings to enhance their beauty. Most tribals live in the hill area of the Eastern Ghats in the southern districts Koraput, Rayagada and Phulabani. They live dispersed in little villages near market places like Barakhoma and Tumudibandh in Phulabani district, Radang and Bissamcuttack in Rayagada district, Onkudelli and Gupteshwar in Koraput district. 

The adivasis are the original inhabitants of Orissa. The word adivasi is derived from the sanskrit language and means "first dweller". These original inhabitants have a dark skin. Their spoken language is Dravidian. Later Austro-asian peoples came to the Indian subcontinent introducing their own spoken language. Finally around 1800 BC light coloured Arians entered the subcontinent. They introduced a new language with writings in sanskrit. They also introduced a new society with four classes. At the top of the social order were the brahmans or priests. Below these priests were the ksatriyas or warriors. Below the warriors were the vaisyas or traders and farmers. At the bottom of the social order were the sudras or servants. In the course of time this society developed into a hindu caste society dividing the population in strictly segregated groups on the basis of their origin, profession and way of life.

The indigenous people were considered as low-life because of their impure activities such as hunting and fishing which involved the killing of animals. The preparation of dead animal skin was also considered impure as well as the fermenting of natural products into alcoholic beverages. The adivasis did not give up on the consumption of meat or alcohol, despite the taboo for hindus. They managed to keep their own identity and were not assimilated into hindu society. Nevertheless they are used to deal with hindu communities of low caste status. They get their utensils from hindu weavers, potters and smiths who belong to the lower castes because of their profession. The adivasis themselves have hardly any technical skills in handicrafts. Only Bondha and Gadaba women specialize in weaving their own textiles on a loom.           

The skills of adivasis are limited to manufacturing their own artefacts of natural materials like bamboo, grass and leafs. These materials are used for the production of baskets, brooms, goblets, pipes, containers and adornments. For example, the Kutia Kondh containers for tobacco are decorated with geometric designs like concentric circles and squares. The ribbons of the Bondha women for their hair are made of palm leaves. For other handicraft products the adivasis depend on their low-caste hindu neighbours who are usually considered untouchables. On their request these so-called dalits manufacture terracotta animal figures and little bronze statues for sacrificial offerings to the tribal gods and ancestors in times of misfortune or sickness in the family. Moreover the adivasis do not portray their gods. They believe their gods manifest themselves in a stone, a tree, a stake or just a lump of soil.

In the past the adivasis used to wear adornments which came from their natural environment. They were made of flowers, leaves, grass fibres, fruits, seeds and shells. Later  they adopted all kinds of jewelry from their hindu neighbours: earrings, necklaces, bracelets, piercings and more. They buy or trade them from hindu merchants in the local markets. Like most of their goods the adivasis have their jewelry manufactured by hindu craftsmen. These craftsmen belong to the lowest castes in hindu society. It appears that both men and women like to wear jewelry. In the Kondh tribe many men wear necklaces of glass beads just like the women. They trade them with young women for tobacco containers made of bamboo. The Kondh men wear several metal bracelets on their lower arm. On their upper arm they wear a single metal bracelet decorated with an inscription. Every now and then the Kondh men also wear rings in the lobe and the shell of their ears.       

The tribals are selfsupporting by gathering food, hunting and fishing. This is why they live in the forest hills in the interior part of Orissa. Even large tribes like the Kondh, who settled as farmers, go out hunting and gathering to fill their food supply. As farmers they have simple agricultural techniques and methods. Because of smallscale property there is little productivity. Irrigation is not an option, because the land is on a forest hill. Lack of finance makes it impossible to buy or rent improved agricultural techniques and methods. Some tribals like the Bondha and Dharua, are half-nomads  living from shifting cultivation. They slash and burn the forest trees to sow rice in the warm ashes. This method of agriculture exploits the soil and causes deforestation. Once the soil is exploited they leave.

Although agriculture does not bring them wealth and fortune the adivasis will not leave their tribal territories. The land is the source of their existence and the place where their ancestors were born. This spiritual bond is much stronger for them than any economic issue. It is exemplary illustrated in a legend which tells about the origin of the Kondh tribe. It is believed that the first Kondh woman was a manifestation of the goddess of the earth. On her own request she was sacrificed to fertilize the soil and to ensure the well-being of her tribe. For the Kondh tribe hard labour in the fields is an essential part of their life which brings them closer together and to their gods. Any misfortune is settled with a sacrificial offering of blood to the goddess of the earth.        

But if tribal economy is shaky, tribal culture in its pristine state is rich and distinctive and the adivasis work hard to preserve it. A tribal village manages its internal affairs very smoothly through two cultural institutions – the village council of elders and the youth dormitory. The core of tribal culture, the youth dormitory, is the largest building in the village. Its walls are profusely decorated with symbols representing animals.  By night the village youngsters sleep in this dormitory. But before and after a hard day's work, people gather here to chat and relax. The council of elders meets here to discuss matters relating to the welfare of the village. The open space in front of the dormitory is where youths and maidens dance with abandon every evening, for tribal culture allows free mixing of the two sexes. 

The tribes of Orissa have retained their rich and colourful heritage of dance and music. Not only the youngsters but the adults as well are used to sing and dance during religious and agricultural festivals. It is also normal to sing and dance at wedding parties and at village excursions. During these excursions the youngsters visit each other and go from one village to another. The adivasis have a wide variety of musical instruments for example string instruments like the sarengi of the Kutia Kondh,  wind instruments like the pipe or the flute and percussion instruments like the drum which the Kutia Kondh use when they offer a rooster to their gods. 

The tribals of Orissa observe a string of festivals. Some of these festivals are closed affairs, relating to a birth or death within the family or a daughter attaining puberty. Others relate to sowing or harvest time and these involve the entire community. Mostly a festival is an occasion for a good of liquor, a game roasted on the spirit and a night of song and dance and revelry. But that is not the end, there is an animal sacrifice too, for the deities and spirits must be appeased first, particularly the malevolent ones, so they don't unleash drought or disease on the land. The tribals are very superstitious and the witchdoctor occupies a position of honour since he not only prescribes medicines for the sick but is also believed to exorcise evil spirits.

In their rituals metal statuettes have a modest role. The adivasis do not manufacture metal statuettes themselves. They buy or trade them from craftsmen. The Kondh are known for the use of bronze figures. Their bridal gifts incluse several bronze statuettes of animals and humans for example musicians. Some of the bronze figures are cult objects like the tiger. Other animals like the peacock are clan totems. Many tribal bronzes have a characteristic look and feel. They are a mixture of copper and tin or lead - and some other metals. The bronzes are casted by means of the "lost shape" or "lost wax" method. The statuette is moulded in clay. Around the clay core come tiny threads of wax until it reaches the right form. The structure is covered with a clay coating. The casted result shows a kind of grid figure because of the crossing wax threads. Only the heads, arms and hands, legs and feet are smoothly shaped. The bronzes are fragile, brittle and rough because of the mixture of cheap metals. These artefacts are named dhokra after the castors who wander the area. They also manufacture household utensils for their tribal clients like spoons and bowls. They also produce oil lamps and incensories.        

The literacy rate of tribals is around 30 percent, more than three-quarters of the women are illiterate. Not surprisingly, the effect has been that the proportion of tribals below the poverty line is substantially higher than the national average. The government of Orissa  attempts to promote the educational and economic interests of tribals. A special state department gives support to tribal minority projects aiming at the development of the whole region, of the local village community or of the tribal community in peculiar. The department provides funds for special girls' hostels, boys' hostels, ashram schools, vocational training, women's education and cooperative (agricultural) corporations. It supports a special banking corporation and offers loans at favorable terms and conditions. It establishes village grain banks to prevent deaths of specially children in remote and backward tribal villages facing or likely to face starvation and also to improve nutritional standards. The department also supports projects on medical & health care, tribal education and vocational training in agriculture, horticulture and craftsmanship. Special shops buy and sell products of the tribal minorities at a fair price.

The government of Orissa not only promotes the social-economic upliftment of tribal people but also opens up the state administration for the tribal minorities. They have their own representatives in the state legislative assembly. These representatives make recommendations to a special governor concerning the administration of welfare of tribals. The governor makes an annual report of the situation in the tribal areas. He protects and safeguards their constitutional rights. It means not only promoting their educational and economic interests but also removing their social discrimination. Any disability, liability restriction or condition with regard to access of wells, tanks, bathing ghats, roads and places of public entertainment is removed. Like all other citizens the tribals have a right to move freely, settle in and acquire property. Slavery or forced labour is prohibited. They cannot be denied any admission to educational institutions maintained by the state. It is permitted and sometimes even required to make reservations for them in public services in case of inadequate representation.  

Although the government makes efforts to improve the social and economic situation of the tribal minorities the official campaigns do not have much impact. Many development projects are full of internal contradictions and conflicting interests. On the one hand their aim is integration in hindu society, on the other hand their object is conservation of tribal culture. This time they proclaim the protection of forest area , another time they propagate the cultivation of farm land. Some of these projects testify to a paternalistic, depreciating and sometimes even denigrating attitude towards the adivasis. That is why many tribals are reluctant to participate in these projects. 

The hindu population still has its reservations and prejudices towards the tribal people. On the other side the proud tribals are reluctant to integrate into a predominantly hindu society. Many of them do not wish to give up their traditional culture. They are not interested in top down decisions from a central state government, which is quite something else from coming to an agreement within their own local community. They prefer to live in isolation on the hills at the interior of Orissa. There they have to tolerate the presence of civil servants who every now and then come for a census count. They do however appreciate the social and economic support of the government as long as it does not disrupt tribal affairs. This also concerns development projects such as the installation of solar cells in a tribal village which apparently has no electricity...       

Back to index

 

Kondh Video Kondh

The Kondh are the largest tribal community in Orissa counting over one million people. They live widely dispersed in all of Orissa, but mostly in the southern districts of Phulabani and Koraput. The Kondh tribe also lives in other parts of India. Their name is a derivation of the Telugu word kondha or hill. They are farmers and hunters. Once they were infamous because of human sacrifices to their gods. The British put an end to these practices. Now only animals are sacrificed. The Kondh can be divided into three groups. The Desia Kondh live in the plains and are largely integrated into Indian hindu society. The women wear a colourful saree and the men wear a dhoti.  The Kutia Kondh live down the hills. The women have tattoos in their faces, only married women have earrings. The Dongaria Kondh live high up the hills. They are called the “people of the holes” because the floor of their clay houses is one metre below ground level. Their rotan roofs merge into each other and reach almost to the ground so the people have to crawl into their houses. The women wear a white dress wrapped around the body. The men as well as the women have decorations.  The women have a tripple nosering and many earrings, bracelets and necklaces. The young men wear their hair in a knot with a comb above the ear.

The appearance of Dongaria Kondh women is unusual. They smoke short cigars and drink alcohol from a painted gourd. They are well aware of their special position within the tribal community. The Dongaria Kondh consider a woman more useful, reponsible and diligent than a man. The value of a woman is manifest in marriage arrangements when a young man has to pay a dowry for his future bride. The women decorate their houses with curling ornaments of birds, peacocks, elephants and tigers. The Dongaria Kondh are the only tribe who train and hire women as bejuni or spiritual mediums. After years of practice these bejuni are able to reach a state of trance in which the spirits tell them their oracles. They practice healing and make prophesies. They are supposed to have a lifelong bond with the spiritual world and are not allowed to have sexual relationships. In the past these bejuni called for human sacrifices or meriahs to propitiate the spirits. They were the ones who divided the meat and the blood of their victims over the fields to fertilize the soil. 

A Kondh village consists of a row of houses. Next to each row of houses is another row of houses and dormitories. The dormitories for boys and girls are strictly separated. Up and above the age of eight they  sleep in a dormitory and they only stay in their parents house to eat. An elderly woman guards the dormitory for girls. Mature men and women  also sleep in the dormitory when they are still single. Between the age of 18 and 22 it is time to get married. Before the big moment  the parents meet in many negotiations. When a choice is made the boys' parents go to visit the girls' parents who cook rice for their guests. When the rice boils over this is considered a bad sign and the negotiations about the dowry are suspended. When the boys' parents run into a snake or wild animal this is also considered a bad sign. During the wedding ceremony various rituals are performed and a lot of liquor is consumed.... A divorce is easily settled. The wife  declares for the village council that she no longer wants to live with her husband. When he gives her a new dress and one rupee, the divorce is official and the wife returns to her parents' house.

Every Kondh village has a stake for sacrificial offerings. This stake with a forked top is an important attribute for the meriah sacrifice. In the past the Kondh obtained their human victims in three different ways. Pious parents offered their children for what they considered a lofty spiritual goal. Women were paid to raise meriah children for the community. Professionals kidnapped their victims in case of a supply shortage. The meriah victims were treated well while waiting for their final destiny. Their sacrifice was a special event which attracted people from far away. The atmosphere was rather joyful than solemn, for all participants were drunk. At the last moments before his death by asphyxiation the victim was unconscious because of all the liquor he drank.

Up until 1850 human victims were tied to the stake for an annual sacrifice to the goddess of the earth. The British prohibited this cruel tradition. Since this prohibition the Kondh sacrifice a buffalo every year. Another stake with a forked top is dedicated to one of the house spirits called Illu Pinnu. This stake is in the middle of each house in front of a simple shrine. Tied to the stake is the rope of the meriah buffalo and the bones of other animal sacrifices as well. This stake is a clear example that the adivasis do not depict their gods and spirits. Another example is a small sanctuary with a stone which represents Jhankar or the goddess of the earth. The Kondh clearly believe that their gods are manifest in objects like a wooden stake or a stone. It is also apparent at some ceremonies of the Kutia Kondh when dancers carry a wooden stretcher made of four rectangular poles with a stylistic horsehead. When the dancers get in a trance their movements become wilder. It is believed that the spirits have descended on the stretcher and control the dancers.                

All work is done by both Kondh men and women, although there is a difference. The women do the housekeeping, they take care of the children and help their husbands in the fields. The men are responsible for everything else. Rice is the basis for each menu, but in fact there is not enough supply for a whole year.  During the raining season they mix mango nut with rice and sugar to save rice. They rarely eat curries, but they do eat fish, birds and meat. Rice beer is their most popular drink.

Back to index

 

Bondha Video Bondha

The Bondha are the most primitive and fascinating tribe in Orissa.The approximately  6000 Bondha live in the higher hills of Koraput district near the state border between Orissa and Andhra Pradesh. It is an isolated area which explains why their culture is not yet influenced by the modern world. The “Bondha” or naked people are a conspicous tribe because they hardly wear any clothes. They are a fiercely independent and stubborn tribe. Years of isolation, poverty and fear of witchcraft have made them suspicious. The men are notorious for being extremely aggressive and their internal rows often lead to manslaughter. They are also known for robbing nearby villages. 

A Bondha village extends the whole surface of a hill. Most villages are surrounded by mango- and jackfruittrees. Houses are built crisscross near each other. The Sindibor, a platform of large stones, is the centre of each village where people hold their religious ceremonies and gather to chat and relax. A Bondha house is made of bamboo, clay mixed with straw and wooden pillars to support the roof. Grass is used to cover the roof. Most  houses have two rooms, one for cooking and another one for storing grain.

The Bondha also have separate dormitories for single boys and girls. In the past the girls had a dormitory outside their village. Boys and girls are allowed to meet and intermingle, but sexual intercourse before marriage is strictly prohibited. When a boy wants to marry, he gives the girl a bracelet in her hands. A boy cannot marry a girl from the same village. An interesting feature of the Bondha marriage is that Bondha girls prefer to marry younger boys, so they may have some one to earn for them in their old age.  Many men though have a liaison with their younger sister-in-law which causes trouble within their family. 

The Bondha are farmers living on shifting cultivation. In origin they are also hunters, but because of deforestation and dense population there is not much game left. They keep a livestock of  goats, pigs and chickens. The Bondha are selfsufficient.  In the nearby market they only trade some articles like forestfruit and palmwine (solap). They still practise the barter system, exchanging the produce of their fields for articles of daily use.

The Bondha women weave their own textile in contrast to other adivasi tribals. The textile is made of threads which they spin from the fibres of a sialli tree. It is woven with some coloured cotton threads which they get on the local market. The bark of the sialli tree is soaked in water and thrashed to pulp with a wooden pad until the substance reveals its fibre structure. Then the fibres are unraveled and contorted into threads. The women weave their textiles on a simple handloom. They sit on the ground with their legs stretched underneath the loom.

The Bondha men only have a loin cloth alongside a bow and arrow. The Bondha women wear a short loin cloth attached to the right hip only, which leaves the left hip uncovered on the front and the back side.  A taboo forbids them to wear anything else but these selfmade cloths. According to one of their legends the prime mother once saw how a female ancestor was surprised by her brother while she was taking a bath. The lady could not hide her nudity which caused the prime mother to laugh at her situation. Ever since then her descendants only wear a short loin cloth which shows the convexity of their buttocks. 

Another legend explains the naked appearance of the Bondha women in a different way. It is told that the Bondha women were cursed in the Mahabharata period when Rama and Sita travelled through the Bondha hills during their exile which lasted fourteen years. Some Bondha women laughed at Sita when she was taking a bath after a menstruation. Sita condemned them: they had to be naked and laughed at ever since - a sentence which still angers them. The Bondha women wear big and heavy metal rings around their neck to distract any attention from their naked body. They cover their breasts with large and colourful bead necklaces to cover their pubes. They are condemned to cut their hair as well and cover it with palm lacings. 

Back to index

 

Gadaba Video Gadaba

The Gadaba are one of the most primitive and colourful tribes in Orissa. Many of them live in Koraput district, in the central high plains between Madhya Pradesh and Andhra Pradesh. They speak their own language, Gutab or Gudaba, and only few of them speak Oriya. Gadaba are farmers living in permanent settlements. Their villages are generally inaccessible, hidden in the folds of mountains and reached only by negotiating steep, zigzag paths. A village has two rows of houses painted in subtle pastel colours and a wide path between them with banyan trees on both sides. The village chieftain has the largest house in the middle. The houses are made of bamboo and wood  strengthened with clay. Each house has several rooms around a courtyard. There are separate dormitories for boys and girls. The gathering place in each village is marked by a circle of large erect stones. These sacred stones represent their gods such as Hundi or prime mother. The Gadaba villagers believe that she hears their deliberations on the spot and solves their problems in the same instance.

The Gadaba men generally wear  “normal” Indian outfit, but the women have their own dress. Around the hips they wear a kerang, a colourful piece of woven cloth, made of cotton and fibres coloured with indigo. Red, white and blue stripes are used as a decoration. Their upper wear is made in the same style. By and large traditional dress is replaced by modern cotton clothing. The women wear the traditional dress leaving their back uncovered. One of their arms is fully covered with brass or silver bracelets and in their ears they have large spiral rings.  On their forehead some wear a circle of coin shells and around their neck they have bead necklaces. The hair is twined in two spiral tails with the ends tied together by a piece of wood shaped like a horseshoe. Silver or brass rings on the fingers or legs are considered tasteful. The women are conspicuous for having two heavy metal rings around the neck.

The Gadaba have a distinct system of village authorities. The Neak or chieftain is an important person in the village, who is responsible for peace and order. Het is also a judge, together with other local dignitaries, to settle any conflict. The Challan is his aid responsible for receiving visitors. His task is to look well after the honourable guests. The Disari is the local priest responsible for all ceremonies. He attends the villagers whenever they are struck by disease or disaster. 

The Gadaba have a complicated marital system. In fact there is not just one system. Everything is possible from polygamy and love relations to pre-dealt marriages. The parents of the bride receive some kind of dowry. Whenever there is a marriage, the whole village is involved. Everyone helps in the preparations and is present during the ceremony. A divorce is quickly settled. The husband pays some rupees to his wife and the case is closed. 

The Gadaba are farmers. Sometimes they go out hunting for fish and meat. They eat pork as well as beef. Because of this the other tribes despise the Gadaba, for they consider eating beef as ill mannered. 

Back to index

 

Dharua Video Dharua

The Dharua are one of the oldest tribes in Orissa living in the forests. In origin they are the lowest caste within the Kondh community. Their name is derived from the word “dhur” or dust, which indicates their inferiority. Their appearance is negroid. The men have a special haircut.

Back to index

 

Literature

Various                          -    "De Adivasi Volkeren", information by travel organisation Sawadee

Various authors            -    "Adivasi, het andere India", edition of the Royal Tropical Institute 

Various authors            -    "Te Gast in India", edition Informatie Verre Reizen V.O.F.

Dhir, P.C. en Srikant    -      "Orissa, The Land of Tribes, Temples and Tigers", edition Travel Club

Georgina                        -    "A Road Guide to Orissa", edition TTK Healthcare Limited

Lewis, Norman              -   "A goddess in the stones", edition by De Arbeiderspers

Mishra, M.                     -     "Odissi Dance", private edition

Peterse, L. en J. Petri    -     "India", edition in a series of Dominicus travel guides 

Sahoo, R.                        -     "A Journey To Odisha", edition Sisukalam

Back to index

Dutch version English version