Adivasis

The adivasis are the original inhabitants of Orissa. The word adivasi is derived from the sanskrit language and means "first dweller". These original inhabitants have a dark skin. Their spoken language is Dravidian. Later Austro-asian peoples came to the Indian subcontinent introducing their own spoken language. Finally around 1800 BC light coloured Arians entered the subcontinent. They introduced a new language with writings in sanskrit. They also introduced a new society with four classes. At the top of the social order were the brahmans or priests. Below these priests were the ksatriyas or warriors. Below the warriors were the vaisyas or traders and farmers. At the bottom of the social order were the sudras or servants. In the course of time this society developed into a hindu caste society dividing the population in strictly segregated groups on the basis of their origin, profession and way of life.

The indigenous people were considered as low-life because of their impure activities such as hunting and fishing which involved the killing of animals. The preparation of dead animal skin was also considered impure as well as the fermenting of natural products into alcoholic beverages. The adivasis did not give up on the consumption of meat or alcohol, despite the taboo for hindus. They managed to keep their own identity and were not assimilated into hindu society. Nevertheless they are used to deal with hindu communities of low caste status. They get their utensils from hindu weavers, potters and smiths who belong to the lower castes because of their profession. The adivasis themselves have hardly any technical skills in handicrafts. Only Bondha and Gadaba women specialize in weaving their own textiles on a loom.           

The skills of adivasis are limited to manufacturing their own artefacts of natural materials like bamboo, grass and leafs. These materials are used for the production of baskets, brooms, goblets, pipes, containers and adornments. For example, the Kutia Kondh containers for tobacco are decorated with geometric designs like concentric circles and squares. The ribbons of the Bondha women for their hair are made of palm leaves. For other handicraft products the adivasis depend on their low-caste hindu neighbours who are usually considered untouchables. On their request these so-called dalits manufacture terracotta animal figures and little bronze statues for sacrificial offerings to the tribal gods and ancestors in times of misfortune or sickness in the family. Moreover the adivasis do not portray their gods. They believe their gods manifest themselves in a stone, a tree, a stake or just a lump of soil.

In the past the adivasis used to wear adornments which came from their natural environment. They were made of flowers, leaves, grass fibres, fruits, seeds and shells. Later  they adopted all kinds of jewelry from their hindu neighbours: earrings, necklaces, bracelets, piercings and more. They buy or trade them from hindu merchants in the local markets. Like most of their goods the adivasis have their jewelry manufactured by hindu craftsmen. These craftsmen belong to the lowest castes in hindu society. It appears that both men and women like to wear jewelry. In the Kondh tribe many men wear necklaces of glass beads just like the women. They trade them with young women for tobacco containers made of bamboo. The Kondh men wear several metal bracelets on their lower arm. On their upper arm they wear a single metal bracelet decorated with an inscription. Every now and then the Kondh men also wear rings in the lobe and the shell of their ears.       

The tribals are selfsupporting by gathering food, hunting and fishing. This is why they live in the forest hills in the interior part of Orissa. Even large tribes like the Kondh, who settled as farmers, go out hunting and gathering to fill their food supply. As farmers they have simple agricultural techniques and methods. Because of smallscale property there is little productivity. Irrigation is not an option, because the land is on a forest hill. Lack of finance makes it impossible to buy or rent improved agricultural techniques and methods. Some tribals like the Bondha and Dharua, are half-nomads  living from shifting cultivation. They slash and burn the forest trees to sow rice in the warm ashes. This method of agriculture exploits the soil and causes deforestation. Once the soil is exploited they leave.

Although agriculture does not bring them wealth and fortune the adivasis will not leave their tribal territories. The land is the source of their existence and the place where their ancestors were born. This spiritual bond is much stronger for them than any economic issue. It is exemplary illustrated in a legend which tells about the origin of the Kondh tribe. It is believed that the first Kondh woman was a manifestation of the goddess of the earth. On her own request she was sacrificed to fertilize the soil and to ensure the well-being of her tribe. For the Kondh tribe hard labour in the fields is an essential part of their life which brings them closer together and to their gods. Any misfortune is settled with a sacrificial offering of blood to the goddess of the earth.        

But if tribal economy is shaky, tribal culture in its pristine state is rich and distinctive and the adivasis work hard to preserve it. A tribal village manages its internal affairs very smoothly through two cultural institutions - the village council of elders and the youth dormitory. The core of tribal culture, the youth dormitory, is the largest building in the village. Its walls are profusely decorated with symbols representing animals.  By night the village youngsters sleep in this dormitory. But before and after a hard day's work, people gather here to chat and relax. The council of elders meets here to discuss matters relating to the welfare of the village. The open space in front of the dormitory is where youths and maidens dance with abandon every evening, for tribal culture allows free mixing of the two sexes. 

The tribes of Orissa have retained their rich and colourful heritage of dance and music. Not only the youngsters but the adults as well are used to sing and dance during religious and agricultural festivals. It is also normal to sing and dance at wedding parties and at village excursions. During these excursions the youngsters visit each other and go from one village to another. The adivasis have a wide variety of musical instruments for example string instruments like the sarengi of the Kutia Kondh,  wind instruments like the pipe or the flute and percussion instruments like the drum which the Kutia Kondh use when they offer a rooster to their gods. 

The tribals of Orissa observe a string of festivals. Some of these festivals are closed affairs, relating to a birth or death within the family or a daughter attaining puberty. Others relate to sowing or harvest time and these involve the entire community. Mostly a festival is an occasion for a good of liquor, a game roasted on the spirit and a night of song and dance and revelry. But that is not the end, there is an animal sacrifice too, for the deities and spirits must be appeased first, particularly the malevolent ones, so they don't unleash drought or disease on the land. The tribals are very superstitious and the witchdoctor occupies a position of honour since he not only prescribes medicines for the sick but is also believed to exorcise evil spirits.

In their rituals metal statuettes have a modest role. The adivasis do not manufacture metal statuettes themselves. They buy or trade them from craftsmen. The Kondh are known for the use of bronze figures. Their bridal gifts incluse several bronze statuettes of animals and humans for example musicians. Some of the bronze figures are cult objects like the tiger. Other animals like the peacock are clan totems. Many tribal bronzes have a characteristic look and feel. They are a mixture of copper and tin or lead - and some other metals. The bronzes are casted by means of the "lost shape" or "lost wax" method. The statuette is moulded in clay. Around the clay core come tiny threads of wax until it reaches the right form. The structure is covered with a clay coating. The casted result shows a kind of grid figure because of the crossing wax threads. Only the heads, arms and hands, legs and feet are smoothly shaped. The bronzes are fragile, brittle and rough because of the mixture of cheap metals. These artefacts are named dhokra after the castors who wander the area. They also manufacture household utensils for their tribal clients like spoons and bowls. They also produce oil lamps and incensories.        

The literacy rate of tribals is around 30 percent, more than three-quarters of the women are illiterate. Not surprisingly, the effect has been that the proportion of tribals below the poverty line is substantially higher than the national average. The government of Orissa  attempts to promote the educational and economic interests of tribals. A special state department gives support to tribal minority projects aiming at the development of the whole region, of the local village community or of the tribal community in peculiar. The department provides funds for special girls' hostels, boys' hostels, ashram schools, vocational training, women's education and cooperative (agricultural) corporations. It supports a special banking corporation and offers loans at favorable terms and conditions. It establishes village grain banks to prevent deaths of specially children in remote and backward tribal villages facing or likely to face starvation and also to improve nutritional standards. The department also supports projects on medical & health care, tribal education and vocational training in agriculture, horticulture and craftsmanship. Special shops buy and sell products of the tribal minorities at a fair price.

The government of Orissa not only promotes the social-economic upliftment of tribal people but also opens up the state administration for the tribal minorities. They have their own representatives in the state legislative assembly. These representatives make recommendations to a special governor concerning the administration of welfare of tribals. The governor makes an annual report of the situation in the tribal areas. He protects and safeguards their constitutional rights. It means not only promoting their educational and economic interests but also removing their social discrimination. Any disability, liability restriction or condition with regard to access of wells, tanks, bathing ghats, roads and places of public entertainment is removed. Like all other citizens the tribals have a right to move freely, settle in and acquire property. Slavery or forced labour is prohibited. They cannot be denied any admission to educational institutions maintained by the state. It is permitted and sometimes even required to make reservations for them in public services in case of inadequate representation.  

Although the government makes efforts to improve the social and economic situation of the tribal minorities the official campaigns do not have much impact. Many development projects are full of internal contradictions and conflicting interests. On the one hand their aim is integration in hindu society, on the other hand their object is conservation of tribal culture. This time they proclaim the protection of forest area , another time they propagate the cultivation of farm land. Some of these projects testify to a paternalistic, depreciating and sometimes even denigrating attitude towards the adivasis. That is why many tribals are reluctant to participate in these projects. 

The hindu population still has its reservations and prejudices towards the tribal people. On the other side the proud tribals are reluctant to integrate into a predominantly hindu society. Many of them do not wish to give up their traditional culture. They are not interested in top down decisions from a central state government, which is quite something else from coming to an agreement within their own local community. They prefer to live in isolation on the hills at the interior of Orissa. There they have to tolerate the presence of civil servants who every now and then come for a census count. They do however appreciate the social and economic support of the government as long as it does not disrupt tribal affairs. This also concerns development projects such as the installation of solar cells in a tribal village which apparently has no electricity...       

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