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Information
Borneo
Borneo is just above the equator. The largest part of the
island is called Kalimantan and belongs to Indonesia. The main part of the
northern coastal area belongs to Malaysia. The north-western region is called Sarawak
and the north-eastern region is called Sabah. The borderline between Sarawak and Kalimantan
is formed by a watershed of rivers flowing to the South China Sea in the
northwest and rivers flowing to the Celebes Sea in the southeast.
The borderline between Sarawak and Sabah is in much more accessible territory
without any natural obstacles. The region has a swamp coast which transcends
into lowland with hills and mountains towards its interior. The rivers flow
through steep cliffs and many rapids until they reach the coastal plain where
they meander towards the sea. They facilitate a passage through the dense jungle
on the island. That is why most people have settled along the banks of a river.
In time these settlers have cleared large parts of the jungle for agriculture.
What once started with small fields within the local village community has
sometimes grown into large commercial plantations for an international market.
The fertile soil appears to be apt for planting rubber trees, oil palm trees and
coconut palm trees as well as cacao and tea plants.
Although large parts of the jungle have disappeared some
forest areas are still in a pristine state. They are the habitat of rare animals
who are near to extinction. Among these animals are the orang utans and the proboscis
monkeys. They are protected by special government programs to prevent their
extinction. The best opportunity to see them is in the national parks and
rehabilitation centres. The national parks contain the oldest tropical rain
forest on earth. The forest is millions of years old and untouched by the climate
changes on the rest of the planet because Borneo was exempt from the
ice ages. Well known national parks in Sarawak are Bako National Park near Kuching
with an area of twenty-four square kilometres and Gunung Mulu National
Park south of Brunei. The best known national
park in Sabah is Gunung Kinabalu National Park with an area of seven hundred fifty
square kilometres. Visitors can climb the Kinabalu mountain and stroll through
the forest at the foot of the mountain.
A long time ago the first groups of people moved to Borneo
because of its fertile soil. In Sarawak as well as in Sabah archaeologists found
traces of their dwellings dating back to the early stone age. We still do not
know much about these primitive inhabitants. They lived in the jungle about
twelve thousand years ago as nomads hunting wild animals and collecting edible
forest fruits. They had a dark colour skin and were related to the original
inhabitants of modern New Guinea. About five thousand years ago the first modern
inhabitants came to Borneo from different areas in the region. One group came
from southern China while another group came from the Indonesian archipelago.
These proto-Malayans settled along the coast and expelled the original
inhabitants to the interior. The new inhabitants introduced stone utensils which
were of higher quality than before in the early stone age. They committed to
agriculture and settled in houses in stead of living in holes. They were also
the first to use pottery and ornaments.
About two thousand five hundred years ago the
proto-Malayans were forced into the interior by new immigrants coming from
southern China. These deutero-Malayans were the first to introduce metal objects
in Borneo. Their social system was based upon a village community. The families
worked together in communal fields and there were only slight economic
differences between them. They had animistic beliefs and thought the world was
full of benevolent ghosts and malicious demons who were to be reconciled with
ritual offerings. Indian traders invaded their dispersed villages in the first
centuries AD. These traders were a key element in the long distance trade
between India and China. On the mainland of Malaysia in particular they had a
significant influence on social life. Gradually a new society emerged under the
divine leadership of a king or raja. The
new court rituals were a copy of royal courts in India. A new religion
was imported from India as well. The rajas were first dominated by the kingdom
of Funan in present Cambodia, from the seventh century they were subordinated by
the kingdom of Srivijaya in present Sumatra. From the fourteenth century they
were ruled by the kingdom of Majapahit in present Java.
At the end of the fourteenth century prince Parameswara
formed an independent kingdom in present Melaka under protection of the Chinese
emperor. He offered an open port for all traders between India and China. In
particular muslim traders from India used it to their advantage. Parameswara
became the new raja of Melaka and negotiated a treaty with nearby muslim
kingdoms. He married the daughter of a sultan and converted to islam. This meant
the spread of a new religion in Melaka and nearby regions. The new rulers became
sultans in accordance with islamic custom. They brought prosperity to the region
because of free trade and the presence of trade materials such as gold, pepper
and tin. These historical developments reached Borneo as well although they
were less dramatic on the island due to its isolated geographical position.
In the sixteenth century the first Europeans arrived on the
scene. The Portuguese were the first driven by two motives: (1) to push back the
dominance of islam in the region and (2) to gain control over a lucrative trade business. They established ports at strategic places for their navy supervising
all trade routes. In their attempt to monopolize all trade they brought an end
to local wealth and free trade. In the seventeenth century merchants of the
Dutch East Indies Company took over business with the support of their
government. The Dutch however had to face constant struggle with pirates who
attacked and destroyed their merchant ships. They also faced social disturbances
among the local people in the region. In the nineteenth century the
British opened a safe trade route to China. They guaranteed free trade to all
merchants without any limitations. In time they took control over local
administration by the appointment of British residents as counsellors for the
sultans. These measures brought new prosperity to the region because of private
investments by modern businessmen and because of public investments by modern
government officials.
At the arrival of the British in the nineteenth century Sarawak
was part of a kingdom led by the sultan of Brunei. At the head of his
administration was a raja who took away all economic and financial
surplus from the local people. This caused social disturbances and continuous
struggles. The sultan did not succeed in making them stop. This was to the
advantage of a wealthy British adventurer James
Brooke who helped the sultan to quell the rebellions. In 1841 he made a deal
with the sultan and was installed as the first white ruler or raja
of Sarawak. Brooke was a despotic ruler with an eye for customs and traditions.
He summoned tribal leaders to join his council. He also kept away modern
investors. After his death in 1868 his nephew Charles Brooke continued this
policy as the second white raja of Sarawak. The region did not take
advantage of the economic developments elsewhere because Charles kept away
modern investors. The economic situation changed however in the twentieth
century under the rule of his son Vyner Brooke due to the discovery of oil
fields and the rise of petrochemical industries. Vyner was the third white raja
since 1917 and decided to invite western investors for the development and
exploitation of the oil fields as well as agricultural plantations.
The white rajas took advantage of the disunion between
various tribal groups in Sarawak to force their rule upon them. They felt secure
in the presence of the Iban who recognized their authority. With Iban support
they forced other tribal groups to submit and pay their taxes. The Iban were
feared for their hostile attitude and their urge for conquest. They were fierce
warriors who robbed their enemies and took their heads. Some of them were known
as sea Dayaks or sea dwellers because of their prior engagement to
piracy. Therefore the white rajas were not popular with
native tribes or foreign regimes because they held good relations with the Iban
who were infamous in- and outside Sarawak. It explains the isolated position of
the Brooke regime in the international world. Even within the British empire
there was criticism on the rule of the white rajas.
Like Sarawak its neighbour Sabah was ruled by the sultan of
Brunei until he arrival of the British. In 1865 the sultan leased the present
territory of Sabah to an American consul in an attempt to contain British
dominance in the region. The contract was not lucrative so the American gave it
up after three years. In 1875 the Austrian consul baron Von Overbeck took
over business together with a British merchant called Alfred Dent. A few years
later Dent bought his partner out and received a “charter” from the British
government for a British North Borneo Company. The company administered the new
settlement while the British marine held special port facilities. The company
however did not receive any trade monopoly. It did not have any authority either
to regulate social affairs. In 1888 North Borneo became a British protectorate.
Despite special arrangements by the British government the settlement stayed
poor. In the twentieth century North Borneo gradually developed into a modern
state, despite a lack of financial resources and infrastructural improvements.
At the start of World War II the Japanese invaded Borneo.
They achieved very little because the people did not consider them an ally in a
struggle against the colonial regime. The Japanese put early resistance brutally
down. At the end of the war domestic tribes fought together with Australian
against the Japanese. The British territories were not able to recover from the
wartime destructions without international support. The
former rulers in Sarawak and Sabah decided to hand over their territory as a
colony to the British Crown. Despite complex negotiations and the declaration of
independence in 1957 both areas remained British territory. Only in 1963
they decided to merge with other states to form the new nation of Malaysia.
Immediately afterwards the Philippines as well as Indonesia made objections to
this "annexation". Both countries laid claim to territories in
northern Borneo for themselves. The result was a military confrontation. The
Indonesian regime of president Sukarno supported communist rebels in Sarawak and
Sabah to fight a guerrilla war against the new Malaysian state. In the early
seventies the war came to an end with the fall of the Sukarno regime.
Soon after its installation the new Malaysian government
started an intensive campaign to promote unity. It was an attempt to ban
international communism and to build a national identity. It focussed on five
political objects: loyalty to the king and to the state; loyalty to the
constitution; respect to islam as well as indigenous traditions and customs; respect
to judicial law and moral. However the government was not successful in the
efforts to suppress separatist endeavours in Borneo. The relationship between
the political representatives on Borneo and the central government on the
mainland of Malaysia is still tense. Politicians in Sarawak and Sabah often
consider in public that joining the Malaysian federation was a mistake. They
expect much more revenues from the oil fields in their area.
The nineteenth and twentieth centuries had given rise to
racial controversies which the new Malaysian government had to face. The open
trade policy of the British led to the immigration of labourers and businessmen
who made a promising career in modern companies. These immigrants acquired
capital and know-how. They outnumbered the indigenous Malays who did not take
part in economic innovations and stuck to traditional agriculture. The Malaysian
government started a new economic policy to bring these bumiputras wealth
by positive discrimination. Bumiputra companies are favoured for
government contracts, low-interest loans are made easily available and many bumiputras
were sent abroad on government scholarships. Public listed companies were forced
to relinquish their shares to bumiputra share-buyers. For a part
the government program was successful. Poverty has fallen among indigenous
Malays and a new Malay middle class has emerged. Nevertheless bumiputras
still do not have an equal share in national wealth. Foreigners, Chinese and
Indians are the ones who took most advantage of a good economic climate for
investments with low wages and educated labourers.
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Orang
Asli
In the jungle of Borneo live descendants of the first
inhabitants or proto-Malays in Malaysia. They are called Orang Asli or
original inhabitants. In the jungle they live in isolated communities along the
banks of a river with only few visitors. At times the journey up the meandering
river with its many rapids is tough because rocks, tree-trunks and drift-wood
block the stream while the tops of trees meeting from opposite banks ensnare the
boats. There is a devious, muddy and long track along the river bank, but
people use it only when a boat trip on the river is impossible. At times
tradesmen or government officials bring a visit to the jungle communities.
Sometimes men from the community, and more rarely women, go to the city to visit
the bazaar or to see a doctor. Many of them however still believe that illness
is caused by evil demons who torment the patient physically or mentally. In
traditional healing rituals they try to propitiate these demons. These rituals are
not only relevant to remove and prevent diseases. Ritual festivals also affirm
the close bonds within the jungle community.
The people of a community do not venture into the jungle
unless they have to. They prefer to stay on the river and the tracks along the
river bank. On rare occasions they enter the jungle in small groups to gather
edibles and materials for their tools and houses. For them the jungle means
danger - not only to the danger of disorientation , but also the danger of being
deception by dark forces who will lead them astray. Fear and caution is
always in their minds although it is never evident. Only at times of ritual
ceremonies the fear of toh or demons becomes manifest. People fear an
encounter with demons anywhere in the jungle but most of all at the banks of a
river, at swampy places where the growth is stunted and the ground thick with
roots, and on hilltops. They believe that these creatures are invisible although
they sometimes disguise as ordinary men to lure them into danger. These demons
however must call off their attacks if they are fed and fêted. Other
means of defence are the use of charms, spells, amulets and incense or a
skew-cross set at the mouths of tracks or in fields. The
fear of demons is related to the belief in a life hereafter. They believe that
the spirit of a deceased roams through the jungle until it reaches the top of a
mountain. Down the top a river runs through five regions for the dead. People
who die because of illness or old age go to an area where they will continue
their former lives. People who die in combat or by accident go to an area where
they will lead a prosperous life without any labour and where they can choose a
wife who died in delivery. There is a separate area for people who drowned for
they get all valuables when boats sink or when houses inundate. In another area
are the souls of dead children who know no fear because they never felt any
pain. Suicidals live in a separate area where they lead a miserable life
feeding on carrots, berries and sago. When the spirit is on top of the mountain
it feels discomfort at the thought of leaving its physical past behind. It
starts to moan and lament about destiny. Then it descends the mountain to pass
the river by a tree reaching over the water. The tree however is tossed over and
again by a creature who guards the realm of the dead. When the passage is
without success the redundant spirit will fall into the water and it will be
eaten by the fish. Many communities live
on small-scale agriculture. Each family will clear one or two new fields covering
together an area from two to four acres. The tangled growth on the chosen area
is cut down and burnt when it is dry. A skew-cross is set at the mouth of a
field to protect its occupants against evil demons. Then the seed is put in, the
plants are tended and in the end the harvest is gathered. Thereafter a few
fields may be used for some years longer as sugar-cane or cassava gardens, but
most of the clearings will be given up to the lush and wild overwhelming weeds.
This is a special moment for the community for the people must turn away from
the fields where they shared many moments of laughter and worries with each
other and with natural spirits. In many communities it is reason for a festival
to summon back souls which may still be wandering in fields now given up. After
ten years or so they will return to the field and clear it again if the soil
appears fertile and the demons ready for cooperation. This method is called
shifting agriculture which leaves the jungle largely intact for natural
vegetation has a chance to recover. Nevertheless it will turn primary
forest into secondary forest. When they work in
the fields the people tell each other stories at the time of a break for a short
rest or a lunch. Some of these stories are historical legends about
important persons or events in the past. Most stories however are myths which
account for the origin of cultural and particularly religious practices. Closely
related are stories which explain strange and outstanding features of the
environment like rocks in the river and trees on the river bank. The same
applies for stories about imaginary heroes which account for the ups-and-downs
of human fortune. Their common effect is to make the world less perturbing
either by taking the puzzle out of things or by taking the fortuity out of fate.
They give a form to the world, painting it in excitingly and often amusingly.
Other stories are simple tales to entertain the children. All these stories show
a belief that every object, particularly those capable of growing or changing in
any way, has a kind of supernatural force. It must have some kind of soul
for otherwise it could not grow or change. It often concerns inanimate objects
which are of constant interest to the people like bathing places, hearths and
fields. It also regards trees, plants and crops. Thus at the times of festivals
they give offerings to these life forces hoping that it will prevent diseases
and bad harvests. The people are clever workers in
various kinds of traditional home crafts. A fine example is woodcarving. Some
people carve large burial monuments from a tree trunk two meters wide and ten
meters high. These trunks have carved ornaments from the bottom to the top. The
jungle still reveals the remains of these salongs or burial monuments.
Other expressions of their clever crafts are the decorations on knives and
amulets. The quality of their hand woven baskets is the best in the world. They
use various materials for weaving mostly rattan but sometimes bamboo or palm
leaves. The technique is the same for baskets, mats, houses and shelters. Every
community has its own weaving patterns. Another excellent craft is pua kumba
or weaving of traditional patterns for ritual ceremonies. Another special craft
is making fine jewellery from bone materials like earrings and necklaces made
from bead materials. In the communities men live
longer than women. The reason is that women do more work. Everyone old enough to
do so makes some contribution to the family household to compensate for the
amount of food he eats. Age or sex does not matter. Together the members of a
household run the common capital consisting in the house, fields, tools
and weapons. The yield from harvest, gathering and hunting forms a common income.
In most years a household contrives to make a certain quantity of food available
for other purposes than food. It is in the expending of this quantity that some
balance comes about between amount of work and amount of reward. The balance can
be seen in the case of the young women. They work at least as hard in the fields
as the young men. In addition they have domestic tasks like carrying water
supplies and cooking meals. It is some compensation for their work that they get
the largest share of the household budget in the way of sarongs and articles of
adornment. The same position holds with little children. Little girls work
harder than the boys, feeding the fowls and pigs, drying paddy in the sun and
helping to pound it. As a consequence they have more clothes and some jewellery
or lipstick to go along with it. When one of the children marries he or she gets
their own family. Sometimes a woman leaves the parental home to live with her
husband, sometimes the man leaves his parental home to live with his wife. In
this case there is no distinction between sexes. Sometimes
the household family has a real budget surplus. In that case the household has
several options to consider. One may sell the surplus to a trader and spend the
money on a trip to the bazaar buying a wardrobe and other consumer articles for
the family. Another option is also to sell the surplus, but to save the cash and
invest it in a loan to needy neighbours at a lucrative rate of interest. The
household often saves the surplus of paddy for it will not devaluate in times of
shortage. But the saving of paddy becomes impractical when it begins to go bad.
Stocks can safely be kept for only three years or so, after which they must be
sold to a trader. At this point the paddy surplus is sold for another form of
wealth which consolidates the fund for the household. Because of their
traditional worth the most valued objects are lukut or precious beads,
earthenware jars, brass cannon and brass gongs. Of lower value are plates and
small bowls. Such articles are a true investment because they can be exchanged
for food or anything else should hard times fall upon their owners. Nowadays new
items such as shotguns, Coleman lanterns and outboard motors are in appeal. For
the traditional communities a change of culture is immanent. Some people
have left the simple life in their community to settle in an apartment in a
modern town or city. There they encounter people with a different religion
and different customs and traditions. The muslim faith of many Malaysians has
had no effect on them so far. Christian missionaries however have had some
success because they integrated elements of animistic origin. The Malaysian
government has set up special programs in an attempt to integrate them in the
modern world. The aim of these programs is to stop poverty, disease and high
death rates in nomadic jungle dwellings and isolated village settlements by
creating new settlements with modern houses and modern infrastructure.
Nevertheless many people still stick to their traditional way of jungle life and
still believe in natural spirits.
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Iban
The Iban are the largest indigenous group in Sarawak. They
live in the lowland forests in the heart of Borneo on the banks of a river. In
the past they were feared by other tribes for their hostile attitude and their
war parties. They were fierce headhunters. The white rajas in the nineteenth
century condemned the practice of headhunting. But in the Second World War there
was a short revival: this time Japanese soldiers were the victims. For the Iban
the practice of headhunting was not a cruel act but a reflection of their
animist beliefs. They believed that taking the head of an enemy proved the
strength of the hunter. It also transmitted the force of the defeated to
his victor. The skin was
separated from the inner skull
which they preserved. The skulls were then suspended by
strips of rattan or hung in baskets in the headhouse to transmit their force
into the community. After some time however their force diminished and in
periods of trouble a new war party was required to retain the spiritual balance.
Often a man on the verge of a marriage went out to hunt heads to prove he
was a full member of the community. In modern times the heads hunted in the past
are still visible hanging in the longhouse. The main importance of the heads was
when they were first brought home in a ceremony as supreme offerings to the gods.
Once hung away in the headhouse little further active regard is paid to them
except for an occasional cleaning or renewal of their bindings. They still
remain powerful objects in the community because they are the symbols of grand
triumphs and supernatural support.
The Iban live in a longhouse which gives shelter to a large
number of family households with their own rooms. The number of pintu or
doors accounts for its length which varies from twenty metres up to two hundred
metres or so. Each door is an entry to a bilek
or family room which is a combination of a living- and bedroom, a kitchen in
the back and a loft for the storage of paddy. The front door of the bilek
opens on to a covered
verandah or ruai
which is used to receive visitors or to relax with friends and neighbours. The
second outdoor
verandah or tanju
is an uncovered platform which is used mainly for drying paddy, pepper or
rubber in the sun. The whole structure is raised about sixteen feet off the
ground on hardwood piles. It is about twenty yards wide. The steps leading to
the entrance of the ruai and the bilek consist of a notched
tree-trunk. The longhouse is made of hardwood and partly roofed by sago palm leaf
and hardwood shingles or sink plates. The condition
of a longhouse varies because each household builds its own portion. Each
household is also responsible for its upkeep. Although it is in every
household's interest to keep it in good repair some households may neglect to do
so. The longhouse architecture is the best defence against hostile attacks for
it protects the households up from the ground and all together against surprise.
Is also saves material to build attached houses while at the same time it
strengthens the ties of blood and friendship within the community.
In an Iban community there are two authorities. The first
is the tuah burong or augur who is
responsible for the ritual welfare of a community. He reads the entrails of
sacrificial birds and chickens before a major ceremony.
When he discovers an anomaly it is considered a bad omen. He is capable to
contact the divine realm in his dreams as well. The divine leader is Singalang
Burong whose manifestation is a bird. In the past it was a hornbill but at
present it is an eagle. The tuah rumah or headman is the leader of
a longhouse. He makes sure that adat or customs and traditions are
respected. He is a negotiator in affairs and an arbitrator in disputes. He is
appointed for life by common consent. The qualities which appeal are those which
the people think will help themselves: they want a wise man so that they
can profit by his advice; they want him to be gentle so that his advice will not
be thrust upon them; they would prefer him to be rich for the sake of village
prestige as well as in the hope that he will feed visitors at his cost; finally
they want him to be devout because of his influence with the ancestors. Issues
of public interest, like the initiation of a new farming season and the
preparation of a ceremony, are always considered by a general meeting. The
headman inspires the participants to an agreed decision which everyone
recognizes although it may not be formally expressed. Women do not usually take
part in the meetings unless it concerns an issue of special interest for them. Anyone
stands a chance of becoming a headman in the longhouse for there are no
differences in social rank or position. Nevertheless
there are status variations. The room of a headman for example is in the centre
of a longhouse. Then there are variations in wealth and fortune for example the
amount of paddy a family household has produced. It explains the tradition
of bejalai when
young men travel to regions far away to acquire wealth and wisdom. They
hope to return with many valuables and precious assets. The tattoos on his body
are reminders of all the journeys an Iban man has made in his life. Iban women
do not travel much and the lack of contact with the world outside has made them
cautious. However they do not have a lower status in the community. They
contribute to the work in the fields and are very clever in all kinds of crafts
like twining and weaving. Moreover they manage the house and take care of the
children's education. They have an equal share when it comes to the inheritance
and division of property. When they take part in a meeting they have an equal
vote. The members of a family household live together
in a bilek or room of the longhouse. They eat together in the room where
they store their private possessions. However they do not sleep together in the
same room. The girls put themselves to bed in lofts built over the inner
verandah in front of their family rooms. There they socialize with other boys
and girls of the same age and spend the time chatting, singing and dancing. In
the night time the first intimate relations will start to develop. When two
lovers want to marry they tell it to their parents who have no voice in the
agreement. The wedding is no special ceremony. It is in the parental house of
the bride or the bridegroom according to the place where the young couple will
live. The friends and family who are present get a meal and drinks. Among them
are some village elders who make a speech about the joy of life, the force of
love and the blessings of marriage. Then the parents review the life of their
son and daughter. In the end the bride and bridegroom attest their love for each
other and the marriage is official. Apart from the
household family relations have almost no importance in the longhouse. Attention
to genealogies would seem to be needed for the ancestral cult but in fact they
are not. The ancestors called upon may be anyone's ancestors. They are not
thought of in terms of blood relationship. They are simply men, and occasionally
women, famed in their day for their rich paddy harvests, their wealth, their
wisdom, their leadership, their skills as priests or as the possessors of any
other desirable qualities which the present generation would like to acquire
from them. The old people in a longhouse take their names from little children
out of affection and in return these children accept the name out of respect for
the old people. Thus a man may call himself the "father of" a child.
This phenomenon called teknonymy transcends the lines of blood
relationship. The child whose name is taken need not be an actual child of the
taker of its name. It need not be even a relative. The people place some value
on relationships to parents-in-law and brothers- and sisters-in-law. This has
the useful effect of enabling people who join the longhouse upon marriage to
feel quickly at home. The household divisions are therefore the only definite
groupings within the longhouse. The people in a
longhouse are farmers who grow paddy on the fields in the lowland hills. They
work on the fields or umai for one or two seasons. During a
meeting initiated by the headman they decide to start a new farming season and
accept a scheme for joint action because it involves work which they would have
to do sooner or later anyway and it is more enjoyable and convenient to do it
together. On ordinary days the number of people working together may be anywhere
from two to twenty. On the day of the planting it may be forty or more. Each
person who does a day work for someone else may claim a day's labour in return.
He may not claim it immediately. He may work the field for two or three days at
a stretch doubling or trebling his claim. But some day he will ask for labour in
return. Any member of the household in concern allowed to do the work required
and thus pay the acquired debt. This traditional economy of mutual exchange is
however changing. Nowadays many Iban turn to growing cash crops like pepper.
They organise their fields into modern plantations to grow rubber or oil palm. Others leave the
traditional community and move to urban areas. The
people in a longhouse are clever in traditional crafts like weaving. The quality
of their products is in high esteem. They weave various sorts of textile on a
simple handloom. The pua
kumbu are the most precious of these textiles. It is believed that they have the power to ward off bad demons. Their
traditional designs show rituals and ceremonies relating to paddy farming and
head hunting. In
traditional Iban
culture
padi or rice is the source of
all life and a head is the representation of fertility. These designs
are for example present in the rug on a wall
or in the dress of a dancer during a traditional ceremony. The dance costume of
a female dancer has a large amount of silver ornaments.
Her sarong
is decorated with silver coins while
she wears several silver bracelets or anklets and most of all she wears a
magnificent sugu tinggi or
decorative silver
head dress. These
silver ornaments
are fabricated by touring silver smiths from
West Kalimantan in origin.
Home made musical
instruments like traditional drums and gongs are an essential part of the
dancing ceremony. Some
Iban have been converted to christianity, but many of them still have animist
beliefs. They believe in a world full of supernatural forces. When they spot a
bird on the way they believe it is a sign of the gods. In ritual ceremonies they
plead for support from the spirits and reconciliation from the demons. Before
the ceremony they kill a chicken and examine its internal organs for possible
signs from the gods. In their rituals they use
magical masks made from wood. In
the Gawai Kenyalang
for example they carry a mask of the hornbill who is considered a guardian
spirit. In the past it was a ceremony for young warriors in a war party. They
believed that the spirit of the hornbill would give them courage and help them
defeat their enemy. At present the ceremony is held for bejalai
or the departure of young men from the longhouse to travel and work
elsewhere at least for a few years. They believe that the ceremony will help
them acquire wealth and knowledge when they return. A special ceremony is Gawai
Antu to honour their ancestors. At the ceremony lemambang
or bards recite from memory the entire history of the Iban people and call upon
the spirits to accept the offerings laid out for them. In the end they place a
colourful sungkup or burial hut on the cemetery in remembrance of their
ancestors.In the past many Ibans had a body tattoo.
Nowadays only older people have a tattoo on their body. It was an expression of
their power and beauty and a symbol of their tribal community. The tattoo
was also a sign of one's status within the community. The old men still have
visible tattoos beneath their shirts and their shorts.
Their body is covered with circles and rosettes , spirals and lines. A
tattoo in the neck expresses their courage. A tattoo on the thigh means the
person is a headman. A circle of dots and lines on top of the fingers means the
person is a headhunter. For women a tattoo is an
instrument to emphasize their beauty. The technique for making a tattoo is
rather primitive. First a design is carved in a piece of wood and then covered
with ink. The piece of wood is then pressed against the body. A needle plunged
in fluid indicates the outline. Then a little hammer with three needles is used
to sting the design into the skin. In the end
the skin is rubbed with rice pulp to prevent infections.
For the people in
a longhouse hospitality is a crucial element in their social life. They consider
it an obligation to receive and entertain their visitors. A
visitor can expect a warm welcome and plenty of tuak or
rice whiskey. It is considered
improper to refuse a drink. At
the steps to the entrance of the longhouse the people wait for their visitors.
They beat the sound of a bronze gong and throw rice granules to wish their
visitors good fortune. It
is their custom to spread mats for the visitors on the floor and invite them to
sit down. Then they sit down in a half circle to make acquaintance with their
visitors. It is also their custom to serve a meal of rice and meat for their
visitors. When the meal is finished they serve more tuak to their
visitors. They fear some kind of ritual affliction or panun if they fail
to pay their social dues. They think the same is true for their visitors. They
think that their visitors place themselves in danger if they fail to accept
their offer. Religious ceremonies are of greater moment and it is here that the
importance of giving and getting dues receives its strongest stress. Everyone
present must receive a portion of the offerings to avoid the risk of panun.
The idea that an injury is inflicted when an obligation is not fulfilled extends
to any relationship in which somebody owes something to somebody else.
Back
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Penan The
Penan are a small tribal group among the indigenous groups
in Sarawak. They live a
nomadic life in the jungle and stay no longer than one year
in the same place until the animals that they hunt have all disappeared and
until the pantu
palm trees with their fruits have wilted. Then the whole
family migrates through the dense forest to another place with all their
belongings packed on their backs. Within a few hours they have built a new lamin tana
or temporary forest house.
Because of many hostilities in the past the Penan have a
tense relation with the Iban. On the other hand they consider other tribal
groups to be their friendly neighbours. This is mainly because the nomadic Penan
do not claim any territory which is often the source of tribal conflicts. At
present only few Penan
live like nomads in the jungle. Forced by governmental
development programs many have settled in a modern longhouse village on the
banks of a river. Nevertheless these settled Penan secretly return to their
former jungle life every now and then to hunt animals and gather fruits in the
forest. The
nomadic Penan are no farmers. They do
not grow paddy or any other kind of food crop. They
eat meat and fish as a supplement to their staple food which is
wild tapioca, luan and sago
from the aping
and pantu palm
trees. Despite their nomadic life they are
excellent craftsmen. The men forge their own utensils and carve their own
blowpipes for hunting. The women twine baskets for collecting forest fruits and
rattan mats for their lamin
tana or temporary forest house. Some
Penan have
settled in a longhouse under pressure of the government authorities. They grow
paddy and other food crops just like other tribal communities. Nevertheless these settled Penan secretly return to their
former jungle life every now and then to hunt animals and gather fruits in the
forest. New ethnic tensions arise as they
claim the right of landownership. The Penan
in the forest believe in a spiritual
world full of ghosts and demons. Children as well as their parents wear amulets
to ward off bad demons. Unlike other tribal groups they do not have large ritual
ceremonies. When someone dies they bury the body
below the hut and leave it behind. They move to another lamin tana or
house is the forest. Most
Penan in a longhouse have turned to islam.
Nevertheless many of them still have animist beliefs. They have copied new
burial rites from other tribal groups. When the chief of a clan dies they make a
salong
or an elegant wooden tomb atop a
stout wooden pole which houses the remains of the deceased. In
a meeting they choose the right merang
tree for this monument. They chop it
down and together they transport it from the forest to the longhouse. In a new
meeting they discuss the designs which they will carve in the salong.
A common design is the kalong bana or
dog's head with eyes all over. When the decoration of the pole is finished they
decide when the nulang
will be or the day that they will take
the remains of the deceased from its temporary coffin to a gusi or
jar in the salong. Back
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Kuching
In the
nineteenth
century many people have settled in Kuching
on the banks of the Sarawak
river. Many of them were engaged in the exploitation of minerals
nearby.
James
Brooke established his residence near
the town centre. Charles Brooke
gave the town in 1872
its present name of kuching
or
cat in
Malay language.
He constructed various government
buildings with new architectural characteristics which combined Moorish elements
from the tropics with neoclassical elements from Europe. Neoclassicism was
the favourite style of architecture in
the
nineteenth century for all representative
government buildings throughout the
world.
Many historical buildings in the old
town centre have survived the devastations of World War II. The town centre
still reminds of the recent past with these historical buildings surrounded by
landscaped parks and gardens. Its residents live together in peace despite their
various racial and religious backgrounds.
On the north bank of the Sarawak
river is the royal
palace Astana
which Charles Brooke
built in 1870
at the arrival of his wife Margaret.
Now it is the residence of the Sarawak
governor. It
is a white shingle-roofed building set amid rolling lawns near the waterfront.
Nearby is Fort Margherita
which Charles Brooke
built in 1879
to guard the approach to Kuching against
pirates. The white fort,
complete with battlements, sits on a knoll opposite
the waterfront and offers a nice view along the
river. On the south bank of the Sarawak
river is the Court
House from
1874. It
was the second government building constructed by Charles Brooke. The clock
tower on the front side of the building was a later addition in 1883.
Nearby is a granite memorial for Charles Brooke facing the river. Up until
recently the court house was used for magistrate councils.
On all four corners of the building is an
image of the four largest ethnic groups in Sarawak. The
square tower on the waterfront right across
the court house was built in 1879
and served as a prison.
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Semenggoh
At a distance of about thirty kilometres
to the south of Kuching
is a wildlife rehabilitation centre in
Semenggoh. The
centre attempts to rehabilitate orang-utans
and other animals that have been orphaned or
illegally caged. The
orang utans
are the only primates which live outside
Africa. They live on the islands of Borneo and Sumatra. Their existence is
threatened by hunters who kill these animals and by logging companies who
destroy their natural habitat. That is why they are an endangered species
protected by international law. The animals in Semenggoh
are nursed when they arrive in the rehabilitation centre and
patiently they are taught to lead a new life independent of human aid.
Their food is on ration and limited to bananas
or flour to encourage them to find their own food in the forest. The intent of
this program is that they learn to lead their own life in the wild. In the end
the animals will stay in the forest and do not return to the centre any more.
The females
however will return every now and then when they are pregnant. After child
delivery they go back to the forest.
The indigenous people believe that
the orang-utan is a spiritual cousin. According to one of their stories all
orang-utans are descendants of a man who committed a misdemeanour in his
community. The man fled into the forest because he felt disgrace. In the
forest he mated with a mysterious creature and thus he became a father of the
first orang-utan. Another story tells how the gods created all life on earth.
When they finished the creation of mankind they were very pleased and decided
to a feast. The next day they returned to their creations but they forgot an
essential element and created only orang-utans. Just like the traditional
tribals modern scientists consider these primates as relatives of modern
man. Their theories are based on research of fossils and on biochemical
similarities in blood cells and chromosomes.
In the course of time the orang-utans
have adapted to the life in trees. Their sight is better than their smell. Like
many other primates they have a distinct nose and large forward eyes. It
enables them to estimate a distance when they climb from one tree to another.
Just like most primates they do not have claws but hands with fingers and feet
with toes. It enables them to grab a branch when they climb from one tree to
another. Like other primates they stand upright in many cases when they are
involved in some kind of activity. In
contrast to other primates the orang-utans
do not live in groups. They live a life in solitude and isolation. Most of the
time they sway from one tree to another and only on rare occasions they walk on
the ground. Their movements are slow and
cautious. They do not jump from one tree to another, but sway the top of a tree
long enough to get hold of another tree. Then they pull both trees to each other
and transmit their weight from one tree to the next before they let go. Another
special characteristic of the orang-utan is that they make their sleeping nests
in the trees.
Adult males weigh over one hundred kilograms
and measure one metre and a half with a reach of more than two metres for
their arms. They live in solitude without the company of their congeners. The
females have a slim build and do not weigh more than fifty kilograms. They
often have the company of one or two cubs but they never join other females to
form a group. There is a simple explanation for this solitary way of life.
Orang-utans are large animals with a specific diet and their largest problem
is finding food for their taste. Because of their weight the swaying through
the top of the trees requires much effort so they can search food in an area
of only a few hundred metres each day. The main problem is that their
favourite fruits - figs, durians, rambutans and mangos - are scarce and far
spread. That is why they have to live in solitude and can not socialize. When
they encounter a congener they do not show any interest. Despite their
strength they are not aggressive. The males only become excited when other
males invade their territory.
Orang-utans can reach an age of
forty years. After their birth the cubs are suckled for two years by their
mother who gives a lot of time and attention to their education. It will take
at least three years before she is ready to mate again. The females are mature
at the age of eight. When they become receptive a male joins them. The males
however do not care for parental activities. After courtship which takes a few
days or weeks they leave their partner. The female has to take care of her
cubs alone. When they grow up the young males leave their mother to stay with
other families or to hang around with other youngsters. In the end they turn
away from family life and spread into the forest where they search for a
territory of their own and where they court a female every now and then. The
young females stay with their mother until they are mature and until they
attract lovers of their own. When they leave their family they will not go far
away. They settle at the boundary of their mother's territory.
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Bako
About forty kilometres north of Kuching
is a small nature
reserve.
The
Bako National Park
protects twenty seven square
kilometres of an unspoilt promontory between the mouths of the Sarawak
and Bako rivers.
Here mangroves fringe the coasts and the rocky headlands
are indented with sandy beaches. The park features seven types of vegetation.
These include rainforest, mangroves, peat swamps and kerangas
which grow on the dry and porous sandstone plateaus
in the area. For botanists the park features pitcher plants as well.
Visitors can walk various trails
which start from park headquarters. These trails
are well marked by different colours on the trees
and stone rocks in the jungle. Together they cover a
distance of more than thirty kilometres ranging from short walks around park
headquarters to strenuous walks to the end of the peninsula. The trails bear the
name of a mountain, a waterfall, a mangrove, a beach or a clip in the area.
Walking a trail will prove a physical exhaustion for one walks on slippery
jungle paths covered with dense roots in a wet and hot climate. The effort will
force the visitor to a slow pace.
At the bottom of the jungle close to the ground the light
is dim. Only few plants and shrubs manage to survive here among the waste of
leaves which have fallen from the trees. Fungi which do not need much light are
the most common vegetation close to the ground. They feed on decomposing organic
matter. Higher up the ground the vegetation is abundant. Because of the climate
most trees in the area bear leaves throughout the year. The animals in the park
have a constant supply of food which is not interrupted by cold or dry seasons.
Each month of the year will yield a new supply of fresh flowers, leaves and
fruits. That is why most animals in Bako National Park can afford to have their
own special diet.
At some places in the national park the mangrove forests
are a few kilometres wide including over thirty different types of mangrove
trees. In the front line are the sonneratia and avicennia who attach to the
ground just above the lowest tide. They grow in a
forward direction towards the sea. Their roots hold back all tidal slime
and grit to get a firm grip to the ground. The roots are constantly in the mud
and under the water so they have developed a special air breathing system. They
grow thousands of small shoots straight up above the water and the mud. They
breathe air through these shoots leading down to the roots in the bottom. From
the very first start they blossom throughout the year. The fruits are still
hanging on the trees when they grow new shoots and leaves. The same applies for
the rhizophora higher up the sea banks in the second line of the mangrove forest.
These trees have stilted roots which grow from the stem into the mud. They give
extra support to the tree serve when the mud starts to move. They have many
pores to breathe the air which they lead down to the roots below the
water.
The Bako National Park is most famous for
its wildlife. In the park live a large number of animals including the rare proboscis
monkeys. They live in the mangrove forests along the beach and feed on fresh
shoots of the sonneratia tree.
The proboscis monkeys are a subspecies of the langurs. They are
improbable-looking creatures with a red-brown fur, a red face and white arms,
legs and tail. The male
has a pendulous nose and a bulbous belly.
The females and youngsters are more daintily built
with quaint upturned noses.
They live in social groups of about twenty animals
led by a male. Young males are a
part of the group in which they were born, but they are excluded when they
become a threat for the leading male. They will wander through the forest in the
company of other young males until they are able to form their own group of
females. The proboscis monkeys are shy animals who avoid contact with humans.
In case of danger the males trumpet a warning sound to scare their persecutors.
In doing so they look very odd. Each time the male trumpets his sound his red
pendulous nose flaps forward in a ridiculous way. The people in Sarawak call the
proboscis monkeys orang
belanda or Dutchmen because of their facial characteristics. For they have
large noses as well which are burnt red in the sun.
Back
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Lemanak
Along the Lemanak river in the heart of
Sarawak are hidden in the jungle the longhouses of the Iban. They make a long
trip on the river by long boats with an outboard motor. In the front of the boat
is a pilot who levels the depth of the river and warns for obstacles like
drift-wood, tree-trunks and rocks. Behind the pilot are the passengers who have
to leave the boat whenever the level of the water is low. Then they have to wade
through the river and push the boat over slippery pebbles and sharp rocks until
the water is deep enough to carry the boat. In the back of the boat is the
helmsman. According to the signals of the pilot he steers the boat between the
rocks, snags, shallows, rapids and whirls of the twirling river. Sometimes the
pilot has to assist him with a paddle to avoid a bump into the river bank and
its overhanging trees. The trip is a memorable experience because there is
nothing but the sound of fast streaming water and the silence of the jungle on
both sides of the river.
Despite the tropical climate
the trees on the river banks are not covered all year long with flowers in all
kinds of colours. Instead each specimen has its own period for blossom which is
different from others. At the end of a long and weary trip the boat stops at a
pebble beach which serves as a landing stage. High above the stage upon the
river bank is an Iban longhouse
called Ngemah Ili.
At the long side of the longhouse is the
stairs which lead to the entrance of a covered verandah where a welcoming
committee receives its visitors with a glass of tuak or rice whiskey.
Small groups of people are sitting
on the floor of the verandah while children saunter
all over the verandah. The verandah is clean and tidy with masks, rugs and other
ceremonial objects on the walls. Many doors have a cross and a picture of the
virgin Mary as a symbol of their conversion to christianity. After
dinner when most inhabitants have returned from their work on the fields they
all sit down on the verandah in a circle
around their visitors. Then the tuah rumah or
headman
comes to make his acquaintance with his guests. It
is custom that they bring him gifts such as candy and cigarettes which he
divides among the families in the longhouse. Then
the visitors are served with more tuak or rice whiskey. Later in the
evening there is a dance
by men and women accompanied by a group of
musicians. One of them plays the
enkrumong or xylophone made of gongs in different forms and sizes on a
wooden frame. Another musician plays the
wooden dumbak or drum. The
male dancer has a war cap on his head made of twined rattan and decorated with
yellow and black and red beads. On top of the cap are six black-and-white tail
feathers of the hornbill. His dress is a white jacket with colourful designs and
figures. In his left hand he has a long shield which ends in a peak at the top
and the at bottom. In his right hand he holds a sceptre with locks of thick
black hair attached to it. The hair is said to be cut from the heads of their
enemies in the times when they were still headhunters. At the start of his
performance the dancer squats down to move around slowly at the rhythm of the
music with an emphasis on every motion. The dance requires excellent control
over the muscles in his legs who constantly contract and distract to keep
the balance. The dancer turns on one foot and then on the other to rise slowly
until he reaches his full length. His dance represents a warrior who stalks
an enemy ready to start a combat. In the end the dancer squats down again for a
final jump forward. With one blow of his sword he slays down his imaginary enemy.
In his dance he holds up his shield as a defence against a counter-attack. The
female dancers have an orange sarong with silver ornaments. On their shoulders
they have an embroidered cloth with a red brim. On their head they have a sugu tinggi or
silver head dress. At the start of their performance they squat down as
well to rise slowly. With subtle movements of the wrist and fingers and with
waving arms they imitate the slow flight of a hornbill. Their dance is graceful
and seductive. At each step forward to the music they show their legs
underneath the sarong. When they bend over they show the curves of their
body underneath their clothes. The colourful embroidery and silver ornaments add
an extra touch to the beauty of their performance. It
is custom that the visitor will take part in the performance and shows his own
dance to the inhabitants of the longhouse. When the dance is finished he gets
more tuak or rice whiskey. Then it is time for games. The people
present sit in a circle and take a line in their hands with a metal ring. They
pass the ring to the next person in the circle without being seen. In the
middle of the circle is a person who has to guess where the ring is. Each time
when he gives a stop signal he can make a guess. If the points at the right
person with the metal ring in his hands this person has to take his place in the
middle of the circle. The moment he steps into the circle he has to drink a
glass of tuak or rice whiskey. Late in the evening everyone has had so
many drinks that it is impossible to have a clear view. So it is much more
difficult to guess where the metal ring is. This enhances the fun of the game
and the laughter of the people. The next
morning the inhabitants of the longhouse go to the
river for a bath. Men and women have their own place in the river where they can
take a bath without being seen. Further up the stream of the river they get
water for drinking, cooking and washing. When breakfast is finished most of the
inhabitants go to the landing stage on the river where they will take a boat to
go to their work on the fields. The ones who stay behind wave them goodbye. The
dogs run down the tracks on the river bank until they loose sight of the boats.
To entertain the visitors one of the men in the longhouse wears the traditional
dress of an Iban hunter.
He has a blowpipe which he demonstrates in the open air of the tanju
or outer verandah. In the past the blowpipe with its poisonous darts was a
weapon which many people feared. An experienced hunter was able to hit an enemy
at a distance of more than twenty five metres and exterminate him for ever. The
blowpipe was also used for hunting animals. Nowadays most people use a shotgun
instead of a blowpipe. A
boat trip further up the Lemanak river leads deep into the heart of Sarawak to
the Iban longhouse of
Kachong. Visitors can expect a warm welcome
here with a glass of tuak or rice whiskey.
The ruai in Kachong is rather untidy with
no ornaments on the walls. Dogs sleep on the covered verandah where they leave a
penetrative smell. On the walls are worn hats,
broken baskets, torn bags and moist mats next
to wooden utensils. After
dinner the inhabitants gather in a circle around their visitors. Then the tuah rumah or
headman appears
to makes acquaintance with his guests. He
receives their gifts which he divides equally among the inhabitants. The main pastime
in Kachong is a blindfold game where a person has to find a gong which
is constantly moved to another place. From one
of the rooms
comes the sound of a television set which is clearly
as a sign of modernisation. When it is time to sleep the
night is still full of rumours because of the sounds of wild animals in the
jungle. Domestic animals like pigs and chickens also make sounds when they pick
the mud underneath the longhouse in search for food which has fallen between the
slats in the wooden floor. When
the night on the ruai of the longhouse is over the visitors go for a walk
on the tracks in the jungle nearby. Behind
the longhouse is a track which leads to the river where people take a bath and
wash their clothes. On the other side of the river the track leads into the
jungle where the Iban guide demonstrates medicinal herbs in the forest as well
as edible fruits and turnips. In the forest are many plants and trees which they
use for the construction of their houses, for the reparation of their clothes
and for the production of their baskets. On a hill are the fields
with a temporary shelter for storage and protection against the rain. The
fields have been abandoned and left to nature. It
is clearly visible that this kind of shifting agriculture does not cause any
damage to the jungle. Because the soil is very
fertile he fields are overgrown by a secondary forest of plans and trees. Some
parts of the jungle are so dense that one can walk only on a narrow track on the
river bank or in the water of the river. Here one of the guides demonstrates how
the Iban catch their fish with a harpoon. Another method is the use of a
jala or fishing net
with weights. The
guide throws the net into the water and drags it over the bottom of the river until
he raises it with the fish he caught in the net. Back
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Mulu
The area of Gunung Mulu National Park is five hundred
twenty nine square kilometres and therefore by far the largest park in Sarawak. In
the park are two mountains - Gunung Mulu with a peak at two thousand four
hundred metres made of sandstone and Gunung Api with a peak of one thousand seven
hundred and fifty metres made of limestone. Visitors can climb the pinnacles
with an experienced guide - a hill with razor-sharp limestone rocks which tower
about forty five metres above the rainforest. These rocks are the only
remnants of a large limestone hill. Over a
period of many thousands of years the limestone has been eroded by rains and
rivers until nothing remains but sharp rocks. Elsewhere the erosion of limestone
by water did not create rocks but caves which are famous for their fauna. The
park counts various caves with special limestone formations such as stalagmites,
stalactites,
and helictites. Some
caves have been formed by the erosion of a streaming river like the Clearwater
Cave where an underground stream of more than one hundred kilometres long runs
through the cave. The Wind Cave has been formed by an underground stream as well
but its course has been changed through the ages. Now one can hear the
sound of the howling wind in the dry river bed instead of the sound of streaming
water. Other limestone caves have been formed by the erosion of still waters.
The Lang Cave with its smooth ceiling and streaked walls is a perfect
example of a stillwater cave.
The limestone caves were formed by
weather elements which corroded the natural limestone. The rainy water became
an acid because of the carbon dioxide in the air, it dissolved the
calcium carbonate in the limestone and corroded its structure in small cracks.
The rain formed large canals and holes in the limestone rock, the water
penetrated the rock and washed away part of the limestone material
creating large underground vaults and galleries before it came out of the
interior again as a small streaming river at what became later the opening of
a cave. All caves are a dark and safe refuge for the animals in the forest
from the heavy rain showers. Many thousands of swifts and bats sleep and hatch
in the limestone walls. Other animals like the civets, snakes and lizards
venture into the caves as well. The floor of the cave is covered in stinking guano or
droppings of the birds and bats. Among the guano teem thousands of
insects like cockroaches, caterpillars, spiders and beetles. These busy
insects feed on the sick and dead creatures which have fallen from the ceiling
and the walls in the cave. They eat everything which comes in their way
including eggs and young, sick or dead birds and bats. In the past the caves
were a shelter for humans who buried their dead as well in the premises. In
the present nobody lives in the caves anymore but some of the indigenous people still use the caves as a burial ground for their dead. They use the guano
in the caves as a fertilizer for their fields in the hills nearby.
In Gunung Mulu National
Park is a village called Batu
Bungan including a recent longhouse for Penan families
which was built by the local authorities. The
authorities want
them to change their life and turn to agriculture in permanent settlements. They
want to offer them a new kind of life because logging companies and large
building projects like the construction of a dam threaten their traditional way
of life in the forest. Furthermore the authorities want to improve their average
rate of life because in their view the nomadic Penan are far behind other tribal
communities living in regular settlements. A visit to Batu Bungan
shows that the Penan
still have to learn a new way of life. Living
in a longhouse is not an obvious thing for them despite the luxury of glass
windows, a sink roof and wooden boards. They are
not accustomed to the life of a farmer cultivating his fields. Even the half
nomadic system of shifting cultivation is new for them. Many of they
come to Batu Bungan to trade their forest products or to build a temporary house
so that their children can to school. Only few live in the longhouse,
most of them live in private houses
nearby. They are shy people even when they
are dealing with other tribes. They avoid loud talking or sudden gestures and do
not speak English. They often return to the forest for a while which they
still consider their home. They make a living
by selling home made rattan weaving.
They also sell other objects to tourists who visit
their village. These
objects however are produced elsewhere.
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Pulau Tiga
Thirty million years ago there was no tropical rainforest
nor any land on the spot of present-day Borneo. The entire island was still
under water. Only fifteen million years ago the island began to rise from the
sea in a period when the earth shook in heavy shifts and
folds. About ten million years ago the surface of Borneo kept on changing.
Because of tectonic changes in the earth its natural sediments - sandstone,
claystone and limestone from the bottom of the sea - rose up high and formed
mountain ranges. In the same period there were heavy volcanic activities in the
region. The last two million years there were no more radical changes in
the earth surface. But nevertheless the natural landscape changed dramatically
during the last Ice Age. When the water level of the oceans dropped large
parts of the island were uncovered. In fact the island became a part of the
Asian continent. It enabled the migration of new plants and animals to the
island. These plants and animals did not leave the island when the sea level
rose again at the end of the last Ice Age. They stayed although the island was
surrounded by water again and was isolated from the rest of the world. The flora
and fauna on the island evolved in its own distinctive way.
The geological developments in the region have influenced
the natural environment of Pulau Tiga National Park which is part of the modern
state of Sabah. The National Park of Pulau Tiga
or Three Islands is only fifteen square kilometres in size. It includes three
little islands which were formed by volcano eruptions and streams of mud at the
end of the nineteenth century. The largest island is since then covered by a
dense forest with a large variety of plants and trees. There is still some volcanic
activity on the island where gas bubbles to the surface of some mud
pools. The beaches of the island are the habitat of giant monitor lizards
or carnivorous reptiles who eat carrion. Some
of them are more than two metres long. They have a large forked
tongue which they use to taste the air or the water. It
is a very sensitive organ which enables them to discover carrion at a far
distance in the forest near the beach. When they walk they hold their heads
erect on their long necks. Every now and then they pause and lift their heads to
taste the air before they move on. Whenever they smell danger they turn around
and run into the water or the forest for safety. Despite their fearful
appearance they are very shy and avoid any contact with human beings. This
behaviour is different from their relatives the Komodo dragons who live on the
islands of nearby Indonesia.
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Kinabalu
S ince World War II
the former town of Jesselton now called Kota Kinabalu
is the capital of
Sabah. The town is near the South China Sea
where a range of islands is surrounded by a barrier of coral reefs.
In World War II the
city was destroyed by the British who did n |