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Vietnam
In 208 B.C. the rebellious Chinese general
Trieu Da established an independent state called Nam Viet or "southern
state of the Viet". Its territory comprised parts of southern China and the
northern part of present-day Vietnam. This awoke the national patriotism of the
Viet despite a reoccupation by the Chinese which lasted for many centuries. At
the end of the tenth century A.D. they expelled the Chinese occupiers and
constituted an independent kingdom. In the fifteenth century the
Vietnamese general Le Loi was proclaimed the first emperor after a successful
guerilla warfare of many years against the Chinese. He expanded the Vietnamese
empire to the south by conquering the hindu kingdom of Champa. This
kingdom was established in the second century A.D. by seafarers from India and
was famous for its superb architecture. The Cham towers near Nha Trang and Phan
Rang are still witnesses of its glorious past.
The constitution of the empire was the
start of a golden age for art and literature. The emperors emphasized the
singularity of Vietnamese culture in an attempt to restrain Chinese influence.
In the 16th century the imperial dynasty crumbled down. It was the start of a
long period of disorganization and disintegration. At the end of the 18th
century a prominent member of the Nguyen family succeeded in conquering
the south and then the rest of the country with support of the French. He
proclaimed himself emperor and was the founder of the Nguyen dynasty
reigning the country from 1802 until 1945. To emphasize the unification of north
and south he chose Hué in central Vietnam as the capital city of the country
and called himself Gia Long. The name is a contamination of Gia Dinh
(Saigon) and Thanh Long (Hanoi). The emperor ordered the construction of the
Citadel and the Imperial City in Hue. In gratitude for their support the
emperor gave the French various trading benefits. He also allowed them
missionary activities.
The successors of emperor Gia Long were less sympathetic
towards the catholic mission and the French influence on politics. They ordered
the persecution and execution of catholics, Vietnamese as well as French. For
the French government the persecution of its citizens was a reason for military
action. In 1859 French troops conquered Saigon. In later years the rest of
the south fell into the hands of the French and was incorporated as a French
colony by the name of Cochin. Later the French brought Annam in the centre and
Tonkin in the north of Vietnam under their influence as "protectorates".
In this way the French tried to secure their interests in the region and to
restrict the growing influence of the British. The activities of the
French led to the rise of various nationalist movements in the interbellum. One
man, Ho Chi Minh, played a predominant role in the establishment of the
nationalist movement.
In 1941, after a period of thirty years abroad, Ho Chi Minh
established a liberation front called Viet Minh. This front was a coalition of
nationalist groups led by the communists. The Viet Minh fought a guerilla
war against the Japanese who occupied the country during the Second World War
with the consent of the French colonial government. Early in september 1945 they
proclaimed an independent Democratic Republic of Vietnam with Ho Chi Minh as
their president and prime minister. The establishment of an independent
Vietnam was not without troubles. The French did not want to release their
control over the south and soon a war broke out. This led to a truce in 1954
with a temporary division of the country in a northern and a southern
part.
The nationalist government in the south was supported by the
Americans who tried to stop a communist expansion by all means. This led
to a new war in the region in 1964. Under pressure of the international anti war
movement a peace treaty was signed in 1973. However it would last until 1975
before the last Americans left Saigon and war was over. Because of the
recent wars the country has suffered much damage. Thanks to recent reforms the
country is up on its feet again and its economic development is in progress. The
whole country benefits of this progress despite the differences between the
north and the south in the past.
The country has various ethnic groups. Most of its inhabitants
belong to the Viet who are the descendants of intermingling Chinese, Siamese and
Malayan groups in the north of the country at the start of the christian era. In
the course of centuries they migrated from the north to the south. The
Vietnamese have always been strongly influenced by the culture of their Chinese
northern neighbours without giving up their independence. Many of them live in
the rice producing areas in the river deltas of the Mekong river and the Red
river and in the central coastal area. The Montagnards live in the hills
and mountains of central and north Vietnam. Together they are the largest
minority in the country. They are closely related to ethnic groups in
China and in Thailand. Because of their isolation in the highlands they
were able to withdraw from the Vietnamese culture developing in the lowlands.
In general the Montagnards have a low standard of living. Although
christianity is introduced to the Montagnards the reverence of ancestors
and animism still survive. Their religion is different from the Viet who
combined old animist and Chinese concepts into the triple belief of confucianism,
buddhism and taoism. There are big differences between the Montagnards.
Every tribe has its own dresscode, ornamentation, language and religion.
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Saigon
In the past Saigon was a little port town on the Saigon river
bank not far from the southchinese sea coast. At the end of the 17th
century the town developed into a city. The monarchs of the Nguyen dynasty
made Saigon an important river port city. Emperor Gia Long developed the city
further and turned it into a trade centre. After the removal of his
imperial administration to Hue, he proclaimed Saigon the capital city of the
south. In 1859 French troops took Saigon and proclaimed it the capital city of
Cochin. The French turned the city into a modern metropolis. The city grew at a
fast rate. The harbour was enlarged and the city was connected to other parts of
the country by roads and railways. Because of the European style of architecture
and the wide avenues with high trees the city resembled a French provincial
capital. After the departure of the French Saigon was the capital city of the
southern Republic of Vietnam. The city expanded rapidly because of the
immigration of many refugees. The city attracted the population of the
surrounding countryside because of the apparent security and the display of
wealth based on western capital and the presence of American troops. When the
Americans left the city in 1975 a period of economic troubles started. But
the city managed to benefit from the economic reforms by the communist
government.
Today Saigon is the largest agglomeration of the country with
its five million inhabitants. Since 1976 the city has the name of the
deceased communist leader Ho Chi Minh. The former name of Saigon is now used to
designate the city centre. The inhabitants still use the name to designate the
whole city. Saigon is a cosmopolitan and dynamic city different from the
temperate and bureaucratic city of Hanoi. The city thrives on various
kinds of commercial activities in the streets, shops, stores and market places.
Out in the streets barbers cut the hair of their
customers and caterers prepare meals on a tin
stove for their clients. The expanding trade and population centre requires
new construction projects for shopping malls and living appartments. High modern
concrete buildings rise up next to monumental neoclassic buildings and hotels
from the colonial period. The traffic in the streets consists of bicycles,
scooters and cyclos causing an enormous traffic jam in rush hours. Girls and
young women have changed their traditional dress, the ao dai, for
jeans and miniskirt. They cruise the city on little Honda scooters
which are new status symbols. The number of cars in the streets is rising.
About hundred kilometres northwest of Saigon is the province
capital of Tay Ninh. This place is the residence of the Holy Chair of caodaism,
the indigenous religion of Vietnam, which is a conjunction of buddhism, taoism,
confucianism, christianity, islam, spiritism and ancestor worship. The belief of
the Cao Dai originated in 1926. Ngo Minh Chieu, a Vietnamese official in
the French colonial administration, had contact with Cao Dai during a
seance. This supreme being encouraged him to combine the best of the religions
in east and west. Thus a new and ideal religion would arise. According to
caodaism there is only one god Cao Dai. Spiritual media are able to have
contact with this god and the spirits surrounding him by the means of
seances in Vietnamese, Chinese, French or English. According to caodaism god's
truth has been revealed twice before by mortal creatures such as Confucius, Lao
Tse, Buddha, Jesus and Mohammed. The Third Revelation of God (the official name
of the religion) comes from the spiritual world and is therefore considered to
be more important than other revelations. The Cao Dai have an ecclesiastic
hierarchy much like the Roman catholic church. On top of the hierarchy is a pope
with cardinals, arch bishops, bishops, priests, novices and lay brothers or
sisters on lower levels. The color of the clothes represents one of three
Chinese religions: yellow is for buddhism, red is for confucianism and blue is
for taoism. Novices and lay brothers or sisters wear white clothes. The arch
bishop and the bishops have a round flat hat, priests have a high fez, novices
have a mitre and lay men have a black cap. Female bishops have a veil. Almost
all ecclesiastic ranks are open for men and women alike. The Cao Dai have a
moral code: it is not allowed to tell a lie, to steal, to kill, to commit
adultery or to live an extravagant life. The clergymen are vegetarians and
practice celibacy.
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Mekongdelta
The delta of the Mekong river is the
last part of the country colonized by the Vietnamese. In the 17th century they
started to develop the area and to construct canals. The delta is very fertile
because of the silt from the mountains which floats down the Mekong river and
alluviates in the delta at high tide . In the delta the river splits into nine
arms all flowing down to the South chinese Sea. Hence the nickname "river
of the nine dragons". Because of the fertile silt floating down the Mekong
river the delta has become the main rice area of the country. The
landscape is plain and the agricultural fields are just few metres above sea
level. The many canals in the delta are used for drainage and irrigation. They
connect the river arms into a network of waterways. Boats are the main means of
traffic and transport. The difference between low and high tide is much less
compared to the delta of the Red river and for this reason there are no high
dikes. There are no attractions in the Mekong delta. However it
offers the opportunity to observate the ordinary life of local people at close
range for example in the town of Vinh Long.
The port of Vinh Long is
situated near the Tien Giang river. A boat trip leads to large canals with many
motor boats as well as rowing boats. The
boat passes smaller canals with palm trees near the river side growing into the
water. On the river banks are small settlements with houses and fields separated
by ditches. The banks are interconnected by means of steep "monkey bridges"
staggering constructions of thin tree trunks with just one rail only fit for
light weight visitors. The boat
trip leads to the floating market of Cai Be where
many boats loaded with local merchandise float on
the water near the town quay. The market shows how fruits,
fish, chickens and especially rice are sold and shipped .
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Dalat
The provincial capital of Dalat is situated on an altitude of
approximately 1500 metres in the Centrale Highlands. Because of its altitude it
has a moderate climate with pleasant temperatures throughout the year.
This "city of eternal spring" still has a European atmosphere with old
colonial villas along the lake and a city quarter resembling a French provincial
town. The city was founded between 1912 and 1920 by the French who fled from the
heat in the river delta. They proclaimed Dalat the summer capital of the south.
Because of its nice environment and its mild climate Dalat was also a favourite
refuge for the Vietnamese emperors. The last emperor Bao Dai had a summer
residence in the pine woods on a hill near the city centre. The city is the
centre of a vast area with large plantations of
tea and mulberry trees, the food for the silk worm. The environment reveals a
unique landscape with hills, valleys, lakes,
rivers and waterfalls. More than twenty different ethnic groups (Montagnards)
live in the environment. The Lat tribe is one of them.
A road leads from Dalat in northeastern direction to a Lat
village at the foot of a mountain called Lang Bian. These Montagnards are
peasants cultivating rice, maize, tobacco, coffee and potatoes. They sell
charcoal to make a living. The Lat do not wear traditional dress any more,
but the women still can be recognized because of
a basket or a child on their back. The village has wooden houses and a church.
A school is the only stone building in the village. A visit to the village
requires a permit. The Vietnamese police supervises the entrance to the
village because the christian Lat chose the side of the Americans in the Vietnam
war. Many Lat have family living in the west who left the country as war
refugees.
The road from Dalat to Na Thrang passes the Ngoan-Muc valley.
The road has several hair pin bends and leads down from the mountains to the
coastal plain. The French called it the Bellevue valley because of its beautiful
panorama. Along the road female vendors try to
sell water and candy to passengers in order to make a living.
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Phan Rang
Phan Rang is situated near the coast of the South chinese Sea
and used to be the capital city of the southern Cham empire. Temple towers
in many places remind of the glorious past of the Cham. The towers of Phan Rang
are an impressive example of Cham architecture. They are at some distance
of the main road in a desert like landscape. The towers are built on a granite hill.
The group consists of four temples named after
one of the Cham kings, Po Klong Garai. The towers were built at the end of the
13th century. The brick buildings resemble Indian hindu temples.
The main temple or kalan
has a picture of the dancing hindu god Shiva above the entrance. In the
hall is a statue of the bull Nandi, the transport for the god. In the sanctuary
is a lingam, a phallic symbol of Shiva, underneath a wooden pyramid.
The pyramid is painted with a human face which probably represents the portrait
of the divine king Po Klong Garai. Up until today the king has kept his
influence, for every year during harvest festival the Cham go to the
temple to ask the king's blessing for their fields. On the roof of the temple
are statues of hindu gods and on top is a lingam. A
tower opposite the sanctuary was a gate building and the official entrance to
the complex. In front of the tower is a courtyard.
Only the platform and a small wall are left. The building next to the platform,
with a kind of stone coffin on the roof, was the library.
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Nha Trang
Nha Trang means "bamboo river" in Cham language,
which refers to the bamboo trees covering the banks of the river in the past. Up
until the end of the nineteenth century the area consisted of some sleepy
fishermen's villages at the mouth of the river and near the coast. All
this changed when the French arrived and opened an administrative post in the
area. Later the Vietnamese emperor Gia Long gave it the official status of a
district town. In the harbour many colourful
fishermen's boats lie at anchor. Because of the calm sea the boats sail the sea
ten months out of twelve catching tuna, mackerel, shrimps, lobster and
squid. Fishery is an important part of the city's economy. In the markets near
the harbour many kinds of fish are bought and sol. The menus of the restaurants
in the city make notice of various fish specialities. Fish is the most important
source of protein for many Vietnamese living near the coast.
The Cham towers of Po Nagar are situated on a hill north
of the city centre. The buildings were constructed between the 7th and 12th
century and were dedicated to Po Nagar, the
mother goddess of the Cham. She is also known as Uma, the black lady and the
wife of the hindu god Shiva. From the entrance a stairway leads up to the
platform on the hill. Ten columns on the right hand side of the stairway are the
only remnants of an old mandapa or assembly hall. On the platform are
four towers. Their entrance is directed to the east, to the residence of
the gods. The northern tower with its pyramidal roof was constructed in 817
under the auspices of the king. In 965 the king had a stone statue of the
goddess Uma placed in the tower. A hall marks the entrance to the
sanctuary. The black statue of the goddess with ten arms stands on an
altar with a cloak around her body. The central tower on the left of the
nortern tower is dedicated to the Chinese prince Bac Hai. Unfortunately the
temple was badly restored in the 12th century and the sculptured ornaments have
vanished in the course of centuries. The tower contains a lingam.
The little southern tower is dedicated to a
lumberman who was the godfather of princess Quy. The northwestern tower behind
the temple of Uma was dedicated to this princess.
The most important buddhist sanctuary of Nha Trang is the Long
Son pagoda to the west of the city centre. The pagoda was built in 1889 on
the Trai Thuy hill. The original building was made of clay walls and a rotan
roof. Because of wind and rain the temple had to be restored each year.
People built a new pagoda at the present location at the foot of the hill.
The pagoda has been restored several times. A stairway on the right hand
side of the pagoda leads to a large white Buddha statue on a lotus flower on top
of the hill. The statue was constructed in 1963 as a symbol of the buddhist
struggle against the catholic president Diem.
Outside the coast of Nha Trang is the island of Mieu. At
the eastern side of the island is a charming little fishermen's village called
Bai Mieu. The water near the village is too shallow to moor a boat. The
fishermen's boats strand when they come too close
to the shore. Hence the local people move in thung chai or round
bamboo basket boats from ship to shore. The
basket boats are made impermeable by means of tar. The people row the boats
standing or sitting down. The villagers are relatively rich because of the
abundance of fish they can sell. Many villagers
have relatives abroad who left the country as refugees and now endorse them
financially.
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Quy Nhon
The road to Quy Nonh passes a traditional agricultural area.
The peasants in the area do not yet make much use of mechanized appliances.
Farmers still work the rice fields by means of an ox
plough, women transport pigs in baskets on
bicycles,
and textile factories use human labour for
spinning and weaving. Up north in the direction of Hoi An people
manufacture rice paper by hand at their homes.
The rice paper is left to dry in the sun along the road in front of their houses.
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Hoi An
Hoi An is an attractive little town to the south of Danang.
The town was an important port for Portuguese, Japanese, Chinese and Dutch
merchant ships. Most merchant houses, community
houses, temples and pagodas, bridges and tombs from the past have survived
consecutive wars and revolutions. The Japanese bridge
is one of the last remaining covered wooden arc bridges in Vietnam. The Japanese
community built the bridge between 1593 and 1596 to connect their quarter in the
west to the Chinese quarter in the east of the town. The wide passageway in the
middle of the bridge was meant for pedestrians and horses. The smaller
sideways were meant for merchants. The cover made it possible for them to do
their job in all weathers. The roof is decorated with blue and white
porcelain shields and covered with authentic tiles. Two stone monkeys on the
western side and two dogs on the eastern side guard the entrances. They
symbolize the start of the construction works in the year of the monkey and the
finish of the construction works in the year of the dog.
In the middle of the bridge at the north side is a pagoda or
Chua Cau temple. According to legend it is dedicated to the "dragon who
shakes the earth", a Japanese reference to the earthquakes infesting their
country of origin. The temple was built in 1653 and by then most Japanese
already had left their country. In fact the temple was built by the Chinese
community and dedicated to the king of the North. The pagoda contains a statue
of this monarch standing on a turtle with his arms folded - a symbol of yin and
yang. At the west side of the bridge are beautiful old houses with a
souvenir shop on the ground floor selling silk, paintings, porcelain shields and
wood carvings.
In the port of Hoi An boats are for rent to make a boat trip.
The boat passes many sampans where whole families
live together. Near the island of Cam Kim men with sticks wrest shells from the
bottom while the water reaches up to their necks. The village of Kim Bong on the
island has been known for many centuries because of its high quality of wood
carving, which is revealed in the merchant houses and temples of Hoi An.
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Danang
The region of Danang was part of the royal kingdom of Champa
for many centuries. In the city is a museum with a large collection of Cham
sculpture. In the environment of the city are five hills. In origin they were
islands near the coast, but because of alluviation they are now part of the
mainland. Every hill represents an element of the cosmos which is
manifest in its name: Hoa Son (fire mountain), Moc Son (wood mountain), Kim Son
(gold mountain), Tho Son (earth mountain) and Thuy Son (water mountain).
In the period of the Champa empire the caves in these hills enshrined hindu
sanctuaries. After the fall of the Champa empire the Vietnamese founded
buddhist temples in these same caves under personal protection of the emperor.
The most spectacular cave is Huyen Khong. Stone
statues of administrative mandarins to the left and soldiers to the right guard
the entrance. The cave of 25 metres height is enlightened by sunlight filters in
the ceiling. They reveal an altar with statuettes opposite the entrance and a
Buddha in the rock wall above. During the Vietnam War the cave was used as a
hospital for the Vietcong and was a refuge for women in an artillery batallion.
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Hué
The provincial capital Hue is at the foot of the Truong Son
mountain near the coast of the South chinese Sea. From 1802 until 1945 the
"city of harmony" was the residence of the emperors of the Nguyen
dynasty. Traditionally it was also the cultural and educational capital of
the empire which preserved its Vietnamese identity best. The Perfume
river divides the city into two parts. The river has its name from the
odoriferous woods on the Truong Son mountain where it originates. On the
nortwestern shore is the old city with the Citadel and the remnants of the
Imperial City and the Forbidden Purple City. The new city on the souteastern
shore is constructed by the French. This part of the city has modern western
buildings and a colonial architecture.
In the Imperial City the emperors of the Nguyen dynasty held
their official ceremonies: they held audiences and performed religious rituals
to preserve harmony between heaven and earth. In the past the main
entrance of the Imperial City was reserved for the emperor. The entrances to the
left and the right of the imperial entrance were destined for the civil and
military mandarins. Soldiers, horses and elephants entered the city through the
entrances at the other sides. Behind the main entrance a bridge over two
lotus ponds leads to a courtyard with two terraces at different levels. In this
courtyard, called the Great Courtyard, the mandarins from all parts of the
empire gathered to bring their honours to the emperor. The high ranking
mandarins stood on the higher terrace and low ranking officials stood on the
lower terrace. The left side of the courtyard was for the civil mandarins and
the right side of the courtyard was for the military officials. The
courtyard was in front of the Thai Hoa Palace or
the Palace of Supreme Harmony. The building has two roofs with yellow
tiles and edges with dragons. The building was constructed to stay cool in the
summer and warm in the winter. In the palace the emperor received foreign
emissaries and other high ranking guests. It was also the place for
crowning festivities, birthday festivals and other imperial ceremonies.
Behind the Thai Hoa Palace is a courtyard with a small
building on the left and on the right. In
this Mandarin Hall the officials prepared
for the greeting ceremony in front of the Thai Hoa Palace. The courtyard
is opposite the entrance of the Forbidden Purple City with
the private rooms of the imperial family. The city was an imitation of the
imperial court of the Chinese emperors in Beijing and reflects the introvert
nature of the Vietnamese emperors. Only the emperor and his family was
allowed to enter the forbidden city. Trespassers faced a death penalty.
Originally the purple city, enclosed by a brick wall with seven gates, had more
than hundred buildings. Many of the were destroyed by the Americans in the
Vietnam War. The western quarter was reserved for the harems with the emperor's
wives and concubines. In the eastern quarter were the imperial library, theatre
and archives.
In the environment of Hue near the Perfume river there are two
pagodas and five tombs of former emperors belonging to the Nguyen dynasty: Gia
Long (1802-1819), Minh Mang (1820-1841), Thieu Tri
(1841-1847), Tu Duc (1847-1883) and Khai Dinh (1916-1925).
The other emperors died in exile and were buried abroad. Each emperor gave
detailed instructions for the design and location of his tomb after careful
consultation of a diviner. The tomb and its gardens, temples and pavilions had
to be in harmony with the natural surroundings. The tomb of the last but one
emperor Khai Dinh is quite different from the other burial monuments. It
is not made of brick but of concrete. The design is a strange mixture of
Vietnamese and European elements. And the location is contrary to the principle
that the first emperor is buried farthest from the city and the last emperor
closest to Hue. The tomb is a fine example how the imperial court at the
beginning of the 20th century tried to survive the French colonial
administration.
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Sapa
In the north of Vietnam live various mountain tribes. In the
northwestern province Hoa Bin live many Muong. This tribe is one of the
largest minorities in the country. The Muong are related to the ethnic
Vietnamese. They are excellent rice farmers who can harvest three times a year
on their irrigated land. The Muong live in large wooden houses on poles.
The houses are inhabited by extended families. Every nucleus within each family
has its own fireplace. The location underneath the house is for chickens and
pigs. Some villages have few houses, others have many houses. Muong men
wear modern clothes just like the ethnic Vietnamese. Muong women however
still wear traditional clothes. Their traditional dress is a black skirt and a
short vest with an embroidered girdle and silver adornments. The Muong
have strong patriarchal relations: the eldest male is the family leader. They
still believe in spirits and worship their ancestors, but these old traditions
become obsolete more and more.
The town of Sapa is situated in a valley of the Hoang Lien
mountain. The French built this town in 1922 on an altitude of 1500 metres
above sea level. The town has a pleasant climate and is ideal to escape
the summer heat in the national capital of Hanoi. In the winter it can be cold
because of freezing temperatures. In the weekends large numbers of Montagnards
come to the town market to buy and sell necessities. In the environment of
Sapa are some villages of mountain tribes like Hmong and Zhao. The Zhao
wear a red hat with bells and coins. The women cut away the hair on their
forehead.
A brisk walk leads down to a Hmong village outside Sapa.
From high up the road one has a nice view over the field terraces with maize,
rice, indigo and (in secret) opium. Small paths lead to dispersed houses.
The women
wear a dark coloured skirt and
leggings wrapped around the calfs, a blue indigo sleeveless waistcoat with an
embroidered collar, a hair ribbon and large earrings. The men
wear dark coloured trousers and a cap. High on a mountain top is a school
for their children. Despite the efforts of the government the children
leave school at a young age to help their parents in the fields.
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Literature
Peterse, Leon en Joke Petri -
"Vietnam", edition in the Dominicus series of travel guides
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